lecture2.doc

Chen, JunyuPage 102/12/2020Lecture 2 Word FormationObjectives When finishing the lecture, you are expected to answer the following questions:? What is a morpheme? What are allomorphs? What is word formation? What are the major types of word formation? What are affixes? What are derivational affixes? What are inflectional affixes? What are bound and free morphemes? What are roots and stems? How to identify the formation of English words?This is an area of word formation or lexical morphology. Derivations and compounds account for 54.9%, Shortenings for 18%, new meanings 14.4%and borrowing 7.5%Important conceptsMorphemeRootFree rootFree formBound rootBound formAffixDerivational affixPrefixSuffixInflectional affixMorphemes词素(形位)Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of a language.A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language).Allomorphs词素(形位)变体Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. Such alternative morphs of a morpheme are called allomorphs.AllomorphAn allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound .Types of MorphemesFree Morphemes自由词素Free morphemes are those which usually have complete meanings in themselves and can be used freely or independently as words. Bound Morphemes粘合词素Bound morphemes have to be bound with other morphemes to form words and can not be used independently as words.Free Roots自由词根Free roots are free morphemes. They are identical with root words.Bound Roots复合词根A bound root, like a free root, is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning of a word, but unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to be bound with other morphemes to form words.Affixes 词缀Affixes are forms that are attached to stems to modify meaning or function. Almost all the affixes are bound.Inflectional Affixes内部屈折词缀An inflectional affix is one attached to the end of a word to convey grammatical meaning or grammatical relation, such as tense, case, number, comparative or superlative degree, etc.Derivational Affixes派生词缀A derivational affix is one that is added to the beginning or the end of a word in order to create a new word. Derivational affixes can be divided into prefixes and suffixes.PrefixesPrefixes are the morphemes that occur at the beginning of a word. They modify the meaning of a stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Suffixes Suffixes occur at the end of stems. Though they can modify the meanings of the original words, their chief function is to change the parts of speech of words.Root and Stem Root A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It carries the main component of the meaning of a word. It can also be defined as that part of a word which remains after all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.Stem A stem can be defined as any form to which an affix can be added. Root & stemIn linguistics, a stem (sometimes also theme) is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings.In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached.1 Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached. In a variant of this usage, the root of the word (in the example, friend) is not counted as a stem.In a slightly different usage, which is adopted in the remainder of this article, a word has a single stem, namely the part of the word that is common to all its inflected variants.2 Thus, in this usage, all derivational affixes are part of the stem. For example, the stem of friendships is friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached.Stems may be roots, e.g. run, or they may be morphologically complex, as in compound words (cf. the compound nouns meat ball or bottle opener) or words with derivational morphemes (cf. the derived verbs black-en or standard-ize). Thus, the stem of the complex English noun photographer is photographer, but not photo. For another example, the root of the English verb form destabilized is stabil-, a form of stable that does not occur alone; the stem is destabilize, which includes the derivational affixes de- and -ize, but not the inflectional past tense suffix -(e)d. That is, a stem is that part of a word that inflectional affixes attach to.The exact use of the word stem depends on the morphology of the language is question. In Athabaskan linguistics, for example, a verb stem is a root that cannot appear on its own, and that carries the tone of the word. Athabaskan verbs typically have two stems in this analysis, each preceded by prefixes.In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word-formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). Compounding or Word-compounding refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. In other words, compound, compounding or word-compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words together to make them one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation.Colloquial or everyday examples of compounds are fireman and hardware. Someone who believes that nothing he does has a good result might be called a never-go-well person. We combine the words never, go and well to form an adjectival compound. This process of birth and death of words is going on all the time.Free form & Bound formIn morphology, a bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an independent word while carrying the lexical meaning related to the one in the word it is taken from. A free or unbound morpheme is the one which can.ExerciseMorphemeRootFree rootFree formBound rootBound formAffixDerivational affixPrefixSuffixInflectional affix1. bookish2. communicate3. He goes to school every weekday.4. I like watermelons best. Word formations 1. compounding In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word-formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). Compounding or Word-compounding refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words. In other words, compound, compounding or word-compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words together to make them one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation.2. derivationIn linguistics, derivation is used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. A contrast is intended with the process of inflection, which uses another kind of affix in order to form variants of the same word, as with determine/determine-s/determin-ing/determin-ed.1A derivational suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into words of another syntactic category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow slowly).Some examples of English derivational suffixes: adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow slowness) adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern modernise) in British English or -ize (archaic archaicize) in American English and Oxford spelling noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation recreational) noun-to-verb: -fy (glory glorify) verb-to-adjective: -able (drink drinkable) verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver deliverance) verb-to-noun (concrete): -er (write-writer) Although derivational affixes do not necessarily modify the syntactic category, they modify the meaning of the base. In many cases, derivational affixes change both the syntactic category and the meaning: modern modernize (to make modern). The modification of meaning is sometimes predictable: Adjective + ness the state of being (Adjective); (white whiteness).A prefix (write re-write; lord over-lord) will rarely change syntactic category in English. The derivational prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy unhealthy), some verbs (do undo), but rarely nouns. A few exceptions are the prefixes en- and be-. En- (em- before labials) is usually used as a transitive marker on verbs, but can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verb: circle (verb) encircle (verb); but rich (adj) enrich (verb), large (adj) enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) enrapture (verb), slave (noun) enslave (verb).Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes. In that, derivation differs from compounding, by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not change a words syntactic category and creates not new lexemes but new word forms (table tables; open opened).Derivation may occur without any change of form, for example telephone (noun) and to telephone. This is known as conversion or zero derivation. Some linguists consider that when a words syntactic category is changed without any change of form, a null morpheme is being affixed.3. affixationAffixation is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or suffix. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process speakers use to form new words (neologisms) by adding sounds (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of words.Categories of affixesAffixExampleSchemaDescriptionPrefixun-doprefix-stemAppears at the front of a stemSuffix/Postfixlook-ingstem-suffixAppears at the back of a stemInfixsaxomaphonestinfixemAppears within a stem common in Borneo-Philippines languagesCircumfixascatteredcircumfixstemcircumfixOne portion appears at the front of a stem, and the other at the rearInterfixspeed-o-meterstema-interfix-stembLinks two stems together in a compoundDuplifixteenyweenystemduplifixIncorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem(may occur in front, at the rear, or within the stem)TransfixMaltese: kiteb he wrote(compare root ktb write)stransfixtetransfixmA discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stemSimulfixmouse miceChanges a segment of a stemSuprafixproduce (noun)produce (verb)Changes a suprasegmental phoneme of a stemDisfixAlabama: tipli break up(compare root tipasli break)stmThe elision of a portion of a stem4. clippingIn linguistics, clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand:1969). Clipping is also known as truncation or shortening.a) Back clippingBack clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music).b) Fore-clippingFore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. Examples: chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university).c) Middle clippingIn middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective).d) Complex clippingClipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983), the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.5. blendingIn linguistics, a blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes.Blends deal with the action of abridging and then combining various lexemes to form a new word. However, the process of defining which words are true blends and which are not is more complicated. The difficulty comes in determining which parts of a new word are recoverable (its root can be distinguished).1There are many types of blends, based on how they are formed. Algeo, a linguist, proposed dividing blends into three groups1:1. Phonemic Overlap: a syllable or part of a syllable is shared between two words 2. Clipping: the shortening of two words and then compounding them 3. Phonemic Overlap and Clipping: shortening of two words to a shared syllable and then compounding However, classification of types of blends is not standard among all linguists.Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:1. The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other (see portmanteau). For example, brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch. o motor (2) + hotel (2) motel (2) o simultaneous (5) + broadcast (2) simulcast (3, exception) o smoke (1) + fog (1) smog (1) o spoon (1) + fork (1) spork (1) o stagnation (3) + inflation (3) stagflation (3) 2. The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend of cybernetic and organism. 3. Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the word Californication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of California and fornication. 4. Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. An example of this is the word slithy, a blend of lithe and slimy. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carrolls verbal wit.citation needed When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.6. abbreviationAn abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr. or abbrev.In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term abbreviation in loose parlance.1:p167. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors).7. acronym and initia