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Distinct mechanisms of tumor invasionand metastasis肿瘤的侵入与转移的机制Mahmut Yilmaz, Gerhard Christofori and Francois LehembreInstitute of Biochemistry and Genetics生物化学与遗传学学会, Department of Clinical-Biological Sciences, Center for Biomedicine, University of Basel,Switzerland瑞士巴塞尔大学生物科技中心Most cancer deaths are caused by metastasis (转移、新陈代谢)rather than the primary tumor(原发性肿瘤).(大多数的癌症死亡时因为肿瘤细胞的转移所造成的而不是由原发性的肿瘤细胞造成) Cancer cells invade normal tissue as Epithelial(上皮) sheets(上皮片) or single cells by inducing(引诱) expression(表达) of programs(为。提供生物程序) characteristic (特征)of developmental(发展的) processes(进程).肿瘤细胞侵入正常组织作为上皮片或者单个细胞通过引诱表达Depending on their tissue of origin(起源组织), cancer cells subsequently spread to distinct(有区别的) target organs(靶器官) where theySeed(产生) secondary tumors (metastasis). 根据他们的起源组织,肿瘤细胞扩散到不同的靶器官在哪里他们将产生二级肿瘤Recent experimentalevidence suggests that metastasis requires changesnot only in cancer cells but also in the tumor microenvironment and in the metastatic(转移性的) target site(目标位点).最新的实验表明转移要求的变化不仅在癌细胞还在肿瘤的微环境和转移目标地点 For example, apremetastatic niche (小生境)is formed in target organs that attract cancer cells.在靶器官中形成的小生境会吸引癌细胞 Understanding the distinct mechanisms used by cancer cells to form metastasis will enable better patient evaluation and the design of innovative(创新的) therapeutic approaches了解不同机制癌细胞形成转移的患者将会是更好的评价和设计创新的治疗方法Mechanisms of metastasisMetastasis is the cause of 90% of all deaths from cancer and it displays a remarkably diverse set of clinical features(临床表现).90%的癌症死亡是由癌细胞的转移所导致的,在临床表现上它也有不同的特征In principle, metastatic secondary tumors(二级转移肿瘤) are formed by cancer cells that have left the primary tumor mass(聚集的原发性肿瘤) and traveled, mainly through blood and lymphatic vessels(淋巴管), to seek out new sites in the body where they seed new colonies.原则上,二级转移肿瘤都是由已经离开聚集的原发性肿瘤形成的,然后通过血液循环和淋巴管在机体寻找新的位点产生子代肿瘤细胞To complete this journey, cancer cells employ numerous(许多的) strategies(策略), all of which lead to the same goal,the establishment(建立) of secondary sites of tumor growth.为了产生子代,癌细胞使用了许多的策略,都是为了建立次级肿瘤的生长位点To leave the primary tumor and to disseminate (传播)to distant organs(远处的器官), metastatic cancer cells first lose the ability to adhere (粘附)to neighboring tumor cells(临近的肿瘤细胞) and gain migratory(迁移的) and invasive (攻击性的)capabilities(功能).为了离开原发性的肿瘤细胞和传播到远处的器官,转移性的癌细胞首先丧失了功能,粘附到临近的肿瘤细胞,获得迁移和攻击的能力 This is accompanied by various(多方面的) changes in gene expression(基因表达) and functions, for example, the loss of epithelial markers(上皮标记) and gain of mesenchymal markers(间叶细胞标记), also known as epithelialmesenchymal transition(EMT; see Glossary) (Table 1) 1.这是伴随着基因表达和功能多方面的改变的,例如,损失的上皮细胞标记和获得的间叶细胞标记,这也称为上皮间叶细胞的过渡 Cancer cells canthen permeate(渗透) the basement membrane(基底膜), invade surroundingtissues and gain direct access to blood and lymphaticvessels. After successful intravasation (进入血管内渗)into vessels(血管)【内渗进入血管】 thecancer cells need to survive in the blood or lymphaticcirculation, disseminate throughout the body, recognize(辨别)specific target organs and extravasate(使从脉管中渗出) into a new environment where they can seed(播种) and grow as secondary tumors where they can seed(播种) and grow as secondary tumors癌细胞然后渗透到基底膜上侵入周围的组织,然后获得进入血管和淋巴管。在成功的内渗进入血管后,癌细胞需要在血液和淋巴管中继续存活,在整个机体传播,识别特殊的靶器官,然后从脉管中渗出进入一个新的环境,在这里播种进行二级肿瘤细胞的.The ability to grow in secondary sites is of particularimportance(特有的价值), because the secondary foreign tissue environmentdoes not necessarily provide cancer cells with the familiar collection of growth and survival factors thatenabled them to thrive in the primary home tumor这种在特殊的场所进行二级生长时有价值的,因为在不同的二级组织环境不一定提供该环境下的癌细胞收集和生存的因子,这可以是他们在基础的大家庭肿块中繁荣Depending on the features (特性)of the primary tumor and itsstroma(基质,间之组织), and the intrinsic(固有的) ability of a given metastatic cell toadapt to a new stroma, cancer cells use distinct mechanismsto proliferate(增殖), survive and spread. Thus, the multiple(多样的、复合的)steps of metastasis encompass many biological functions.根据原发性的肿瘤和它的基质的特性以及固有的赋予新的肿瘤细胞去适应新的基质的能力,癌症细胞利用特殊的机制去增生、存活和传播。因此,多步骤的转移包含有多种生物功能To achieve these functions, cancer cells frequently (频繁的)reactivate(活化)gene expression(基因表达) programs employed by normal cellsduring embryonic development(胚胎发育), such as EMT and varioussignaling(信号) pathways underlying morphogenetic processes为了实现这些功能,癌细胞频繁的进行基因表达.Cancer cells use multiple strategies of invasion癌细胞利用多种策略进行侵入Depending on the tumor type and the surrounding tissue,cell migration(细胞迁移) involves different cellular(细胞单元) strategies to overcome(克服)the physical resistance(物理抗性) of three-dimensional(三维的、立体的) tissuenetworks(网络) (Figure 1)依靠肿瘤类型和周围组织,细胞迁移涉及不同的细胞单元策略来克服网络状的三维的组织的物理抗性. Accordingly(于是), various patterns of invasioncan be observed upon morphological(形态学) analyses(分析) of differenthuman cancer types所以,在不同的人类的癌症类型上从形态学上可以分析观察到多种多样的入侵犯方式 2. For example, squamous cell(鳞片状细胞)esophageal cancers (食管癌)predominantly(主要的) invade by forming conelikestructures(圆球状的结构), whereas lobular (小叶状)breast cancers (乳腺癌)migrate(转移) insingle-file patterns through the extracellular matrix(细胞外基质)(ECM), and anaplastic(还原成行术的) thyroid cancers(未分化的甲状腺癌) mainly show invasionof single, sparse cells例如,鳞片状细胞和食管癌主要是以圆球状结构进行入侵,但是小叶状的乳腺癌迁移单元,通过细胞外基质模式,和未分化甲状腺癌主要表现为入侵单个的自由的细胞 In histological sections(组织切片), thereare two fundamentally different patterns of invasion:single cell invasion and collective cell invasion在组织切片里,有两种截然不同的入侵模式:单细胞入侵和多细胞入侵. Single cell migration (迁移)is characterized(具的特点) by the presence of isolated(孤立的) and dispersed (分散的)tumor cells in an adjacent (邻近的)tissue单细胞迁移的特点是孤立的存在和分散在邻近的组织肿瘤细胞. This contrastsTable 1. Molecular and cellular differences between epithelial(上皮细胞)and mesenchymal cells(间质细胞)表1列出了上皮细胞和间质细胞在分子水平和细胞单元水平的差异Rwith what is observed during collective cell invasion, wherethe cancerous tissue pushes forward as a whole, therebydisplacing the healthy surrounding cells在集体中观察细胞入侵,癌组织逐渐成为一个整体,从而取代了周围的健康组织.Single migrating cells单细胞入侵Cancer cells migrating and invading as single cells canemploy either a fibroblast(纤维细胞)- or a leukocyte(白细胞)-like strategy topassage through the ECM(细胞外基质).癌细胞通过单细胞进行转移或者入侵可以采用像纤维细胞和白细胞一样的方式通过细胞外基质The fibroblast strategy: mesenchymal migration(间叶细胞)When individual(个别的) malignant cells(恶性肿瘤细胞) detach(从.分离) from the primarytumor mass (聚集)at the periphery(周围) of carcinomas they frequentlydisplay(展示) many hallmarks(特点) of EMT 3. 当个别的恶性肿瘤细胞从原发性肿瘤分离聚集在癌瘤的周围,展现出了EMT的特点The essential features(基本特点)of EMT are the disruption (破坏)of intercellular contacts(细胞之间的接触), theacquisition(获得) of a spindle-shaped fibroblast-like (纺锤状的纤维细胞)morphology(形态学),the enhancement(增强) of cell invasiveness (侵入性)and cellstroma(细胞基质)interaction(相互作用), and a slow division(分裂) rate 4. EMT的基本特点是:1、破坏了细胞之间的接触,形成了在形态学上呈纺锤状的纤维细胞,增强了细胞的侵入性和细胞基质之间的相互作用,减慢了细胞的分裂速率Altogether(总而言之), thesefeatures (特点)lead to the formation of mesenchymal(间叶细胞) cells fromthe parent epithelial tissue in carcinomas.这些特点导致了上皮组织癌中的间叶细胞的形成 The resultingmesenchymal-like phenotype (表型)is amenable to (适合做什么)migrationand, by extension(引申开来的), to tumor invasion and metastatic(转移性的) dissemination(散播)由此可以看出,间叶细胞型是适合于传播的,由此可见,肿瘤细胞的侵入和传播也是很易于进行的.Interestingly(有趣的), a typical(典型的) feature of some cancersmight correspond to(复合于) an in vivo EMT: neural crest tumor(神精嵴肿瘤)cells and melanoma cells(黑色素瘤细胞) migrate one-by-one in single filesthrough channels they have carved in the adjacent stroma(邻近的基质)有趣的是,某些癌症的典型特性复合于活体的EMT特性:神精嵴肿瘤细胞和黑色素肿瘤细胞通过单一通道一个接一个的转移到邻近的基质2. These invading cells (入侵细胞)often lose E-cadherin expressionand show several characteristics of active invasion, includingexpression of integrins(整合蛋白) and surface proteases(表面蛋白酶)(Figure 1a).这些入侵细胞往往丧失了E-cadherin的表达并表现出积极入侵细胞特有的整合蛋白和表面酶蛋白酶 Although numerous markers of mesenchymal cells,such as vimentin(波形蛋白), N-cadherin(N-钙黏着蛋白) or fibronectin(纤连蛋白), are readilyidentified (辨认)in cells undergoing EMT in vitro(体外), few of thesemarkers are detected(发现) in invading cells in cancer biopsies(活组织检查) invivo, except for the loss of E-cadherin expression and thegain of nuclear b-catenin signaling(信号) 5.虽然很多间质细胞的很多标记,例如,波形蛋白、N-钙黏着蛋白或者纤连蛋白,在体外细胞进行EMT时都是很容易辨认的,这些标记很少在活体的一入侵的活细胞的活组织检查中发现,除了没有E-cadherin表达的和获得了b-catenin原子核信号的细胞 Moreover, epithelial(上皮)markers are frequently(经常) maintained(保持。) in invadingcancer cells in vivo, including the expression of cytokeratins(细胞角蛋白)that are routinely used for cancer diagnosis(诊断). Thefailure readily to detect(发现) full(完整的) EMT in cancers of patients has led to debate about (深入讨论的)whether EMT actually(实际上) occurs inpatient carcinogenesis(癌变作用) 6,7.此外,上皮标记经常保持在一入侵的活体癌细胞中,包括经常用于癌症诊断的细胞角蛋白的表达。在癌症患者体内没有发现完整的EMT已经引发了有关于EMT实际上在癌变作用中是否存在的深入讨论 However, because the loss ofE-cadherin expression is observed in almost all epithelialcancers(皮肤癌), and other morphological and genetic hallmarks (形态学和基因学的)ofEMT can be detected(检测到) with varying frequency(不同的频率), major effortsare ongoing to dissect the molecular pathways underlyingthe transition(过渡) from an epithelial to a mesenchymal phenotypeduring tumor progression(发展)但是,由于几乎所有的上皮癌都丧失了E-cadherin的表达,并且EMT的形态学和基因学的特点可以检测到不同的频率,现在主要的正在进行的工作是检测在肿瘤的发展中由上皮向间叶细胞型的过渡中所隐藏的分子水平路径8. Profiling(分析)the geneexpression of primary cancers, metastasis and cancer cellsundergoing(经历) EMT will certainly(当然) help to settle this issue andto identify(鉴定) novel markers (新的标记)of tumor malignancy(恶性肿瘤). Hence(因此),differential gene expression(基因的特异性表达) studies in colorectal cancer(直肠癌)have shown an increased expression of inflammation(炎症)- andtissue repair-related(组织修复有关的) genes at the tumor front(肿瘤方面), suggestingthat an inflammatory microenvironment(微环境) contributes to themalignant progression (恶性增殖)of colorectal cancer对原发性肿瘤、转移性肿瘤和癌细胞的基因表达和EMT过程进行分析,将有利于解决这一问题,以确定恶性肿瘤的新标记。此后,在直肠癌的基因的特异性表达的研究表明在对着肿瘤方向的有关于炎症和组织修复的基因其表达增强,由此,炎症的这一微环境有利于直肠癌的恶性增殖 9. The leukocyte strategy(白细胞方式): amoeboid(变形虫样的) migrationSimilar to leukocytes, cancer cells can exercise the efficient(有效的)amoeboid mode (变形虫模式)of invasion that is characterized (以。为特征)by onlyweak interactions (弱相互作用)with the stroma (基质)变形虫样的转移与白细胞方式是相似的,癌细胞能够练习变形虫模式这一有效的入侵方式,该入侵方式的仅有的特点是基质之间的弱相互作用10. Such greatlydeformable (可变形的)cells have been observed in vivo using intravitalimaging(成像) of carcinoma cells (恶性上皮肿瘤细胞)在恶性上皮肿瘤细胞中应用活体成像技术已经观察到了这些巨大的可变形的细胞11. Proteases are notrequired for this type of motility(运动), because cells are able tosqueeze through(勉强通过) gaps(缝隙) in the ECM 细胞外基质(Figure 1b). Accordingly(因此),amoeboid migration has been defined(确定) by its extracellular(位于或发生于细胞外的)protease- and calpain-independent mechanism of action蛋白酶都不需要这种类型的运动,因为细胞都能够勉强的通过细胞外基质的缝隙,因此,变形虫样的转移已经被它的发生于细胞外的独立的蛋白酶和钙蛋白酶的行动机制所确定12,13. This type of migration is retained(保留) in leukocytes(白细胞) andCertain(某些) cancer cells, including hematological cancers andNeuroendocrine(神经内分泌的) tumors, such as small-cell lung cancer (小细胞肺癌)2这种形式的转移保留在白细胞和某些癌细胞中,包括血液癌症和神经内分泌肿瘤,比如,小细胞肺癌.Collectively migrating cells(集体转移细胞)A hallmark of collective invasion is the maintenance(维持) ofcellcell adhesion(黏着) between invading cancer cells by thecontinuous expression(连续的表达) of adhesion molecules and othercomponents (成分)of the adhesive apparatus(粘着剂).集体入侵的特点是维持在已入侵癌细胞之间的细胞与细胞之间的黏着的是黏着分子的连续表达和其他的成分的粘着剂 A subset(小团体) of exceptionally(特殊的)motile(自动的) cells at the invading front of a cell sheet(referred to as path-generating cells) provides themigratory traction(牵引) and, through cellcell junctions(连接点), pulls(拉)the trailing (后面的)cells at their rear(后面)一个特殊的小团体,在入侵细胞片的前端有能够识别路径的细胞群,它们牵引着通过细胞之间的连接点,拉后面的细胞,使后面的细胞再拉后面的细胞 14. Collectively migratingcells engage (吸引)and cluster integrins in anterior protrusions(前面的突起物)toward the ECM and show an elevated(升高) expression ofspecific matrix-metalloproteases(基质金属蛋白酶) MT1-MMP, uPA/uPARurokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and its receptor(uPAR), MMP-2 for remodeling (改造)of the ECM 15集体侵入吸引和聚集前端的突起物朝向细胞外基质,为细胞外基质的重塑升高特殊的基质金属蛋白酶. TheMolecular(分子的) mechanisms(机制) involved(包含) in collective cell invasionprobably resemble(像) those of morphogenetic(有关形态发生的) collective cellmovements (运动)observed during embryonic development.(胚胎发育时期)集体侵入有关的分子机制可能包含这些像有关。形态发生的集体细胞的运动,这些可以在胚胎发育时期观察到The morphogenesis strategy(该形态的战略): coordinated invasion(协调入侵)Coordinated invasion consists of cell sheets that extend(发展到) intotissue, yet maintain contact with the primary tumor.协调入侵包括细胞流扩展到细胞表组织,但是保持了与原发性肿瘤的接触 Cellspresent at the migrating front produce MMPs that generate(使形成)a path(路径) for the cells to follow位于转移前端的细胞产生了金属蛋白酶,形成了一条通道让后面的细胞可以通过. This type of migration isobserved in invasive epithelial cancers(侵略性的上皮癌细胞), such as oral squamous(口腔鳞癌)cell carcinoma(细胞癌), basal cell carcinoma(基底细胞癌),melanoma(黑素瘤),mammary(乳腺癌)carcinoma and colon carcinoma (结肠癌)16这种类型的转移方式可以在侵略性的上皮癌中观察到,例如,口腔鳞癌、细胞癌、基底细胞癌、黑素瘤、乳腺癌、结肠癌. Comparable(可比较的)patterns (模式)of cell migration are observed in embryonic(胚胎的)morphogenesis(形态发生), where cells are linked to each other bycellcell junctions(交叉点) in complexmulticellular (复合多细胞的)sheets and movealong surrounding tissue substrates (Figure 1c)可以与其相比较的细胞转移方式在胚胎形态是都观察到了,在那一时刻,细胞都由细胞与细胞之间的交叉点连接起来,形成复合的多细胞流,然后一直围绕基本组织周围运动The precise(确切的) molecular mechanisms(分子机制) underlying(根本的) this coordinated invasionare still largely unknown, mainly because of the difficultiesin modeling this complex type of migration in vitro.(这种确切的基本的协调入侵的分子机制在很大程度上是未知的,主要是因为在活体中的这种迁移的模型的制造时很困难的)Our laboratory has recently(最近) reported that the cells in theleading front of collectively(全体的) invading squamous(有鳞片状的) cell carcinomas(癌)express raised levels of podoplanin(足细胞粘膜蛋白), a transmembrane(横跨膜的)glycoprotein(糖蛋白类) implicated(涉及) in the remodeling (改变的结构)of the actin(肌动蛋白)cytoskeleton(细胞骨架) 17. (我们实验室的最近报道,在细胞领导集体入侵的有鳞片状的细胞癌的足细胞粘膜蛋白水平升高,这是一种涉及改变细胞骨架结构的肌动蛋白)Notably(值得注意的), when expressed in epithelialbreast cancer cells(乳腺癌细胞), podoplanin can induce(诱导) filopodia(丝状伪足) formationand cell migration and invasion without the downregulation(下调)of E-cadherin(上皮细胞钙粘蛋白) expression, indicating (指示了)a mode ofcell migration that clearly does not involve(需要) EMT 18(值得注意的是,当表达上皮乳腺癌细胞的足细胞粘膜蛋白可诱导丝状伪足的形成和细胞的转移和入侵在没有降低上皮癌细胞钙粘蛋白的表达,这显示了一个不涉及EMT的细胞转移的模型).The border-cell strategy: cohort migration(边界细胞战略:列队迁移)This specific pattern of migration and invasion is manifested(以证明)by cell clusters(团) that collectively(全体的) detach(分离) from theprimary tumor to generate(引起) migrating cell nests(巢).(这种特定的迁移和入侵模式表现在由从原发性肿瘤细胞分离的全体的细胞所组成的细胞团来引起的细胞迁移巢) Duringthis process(进程), cells continue to adhere(坚持) to each other byadherens junctions (粘附功能)and leave behind large gaps (间隙)in thematrix(基质), indicating(标志) that they are able to degrade (降解)theECM (Figure 1d).(在这一进程中,细胞继续坚持相互之间的粘附并在基质中留下巨大的间隙,这标志着他们能够降解EMC)Leading-edge(前沿) cells express integrins(整联蛋白),which enable their attachment (贴在上)to the ECM ahead of (在之前)the cell nests. This type of invasion is frequently found in aSubset(子集) of melanomas (黑素瘤)and in rhabdomyosarcomas(横纹肌肉瘤) 16. (前沿细胞产生了整联蛋白,这种蛋白能够使他们贴在细胞巢的ECM上。这种方式的入侵常常发现在子集黑素瘤和横纹肌肉瘤里)ThisPhenomenon(现象) is also observed in primordial germ cell(原始生殖细胞)migration and in Drosophila(果蝇) border-cell migration, wherea group of 610 cells specified(精确确定的) at the anterior(位于前端的) of the eggchamber (房间)migrate toward the developing oocyte(卵母细胞)19.(这种现象在原始生殖细胞和边界果蝇细胞的迁移中观察到了,在这里,位于前端的由6-10个细胞精确确定的卵细胞朝向正在生长的卵母细胞迁移) TheNotion(观念) that the genes having a key role(作用) during primordial(原始的) germ-cell(生殖细胞) and border-cell migration might also be regulating(调节)cohort migration(列队迁移) in human cancers is an attractivethought, yet remains (残余)to be demonstrated(证实) (在这个观点中,基因具有关键作用,在人类原始生殖细胞和边界细胞迁移也可能被调节,列队迁移是一个很有吸引力的思想,但是还有待证实).Tumor cell plasticity(肿瘤细胞的可塑性)Several lines of evidence suggest that tumor cells exhibit(显示出)Marked(明显的) plasticity(可塑性) in modulating(调节) their type of invasion toprogress through(透过进展) the multiple(多重的) stages (阶段)of the metastaticprocess.(一些证据表明,肿瘤细胞在通过多重的转移进程的多个阶段来调节自己的入侵类型时显示出了可塑性) For example, to intravasate, collectively(集体的) invadingcells have to break away from their neoplastic(肿瘤的) neighborsbefore being able to enter the bloodstream(体内循环的血液).(例如,对intravasate来说,集体入侵的细胞必须从他们邻近的肿瘤脱离,然后才能进入血液) Thus, an adaptiveswitch in migration mechanisms must occur, enablingcells to survive in different environments.(因此,一个有适应能力的改变在转移机制中必须出现,使细胞在不同的环境中能够生存) In support of thishypothesis(假设), it is known that cells not only undergo EMTduring tumor metastasis but also progress from amesenchymal (间叶细胞)to an amoeboid type(变形虫样的) of invasion.(为了支持这项假说,已经知道的是细胞在进行肿瘤转移的过程中不仅仅是经历EMT过程还有从间叶细胞到变形虫样的类型的入侵) Forexample, mesenchymal cells subjected(受管制) to protease(蛋白酶) inhibitortreatment(处理) in three-dimensional (3D) culture undergo amesenchymalamoeboid transition, enabling(促使) efficient(效率高的)migration in the absence of protease activity 12(例如,间叶细胞在经历由间叶细胞到变形虫的过渡,当其在3D培养时受到了蛋白酶抑制剂的抑制,这促使了在没有蛋白酶参与的情况下的高效率的转移). Employinga melanoma (黑素瘤)explant (外植体)model of human cancer(用人类癌症患者的黑素瘤外植体模型), Friedl andcoworkers(同事) have also shown that cells can switch from oneinvasion pattern to another(菲利德尔和同事还指出,细胞能够从一个入侵模式切换到另一个入侵模式), depending on the tumorenvironment and particularly(特别) on the selective(选择的) pressure(压力)exerted(外露的) by anticancer drugs (抗癌药物)14.(菲利德尔和同事用人类癌症患者的黑素瘤外植体模型还指出细胞能够依据肿瘤的环境和特别的对选择压力的施加的抗癌药物,从一个入侵模式切换到另一个入侵模式) In addition, adherens(黏着的)junction(交叉点) components(成分), such as E-cadherin, are known to belost in primary tumors but are re-expressed(重新表达) in distant(远处的)metastasis, suggesting that mesenchymal cells can redifferentiate(重新区分)i
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