语言学 Syntaxppt课件.ppt

Topic4Syntax句法 Linguistics Grammar Syntax Grammar theknowledgeandstudyofthemorphologicalandsyntacticregularitiesofanaturallanguage Bussmann 2000 AsaresultoftheinfluenceofAmericanstructurallinguistics manylinguistsacceptadistinctionbetweenmorphologyandsyntaxwhichtogetherconstitutegrammar 4 1Syntax Definition Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences Syntax Sentencescanbestudiedintwodifferentways Statically wecandescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratetherelationshipamongtheelementsofasentence Dynamically wecanstudyhowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules Whatdoessyntaxstudy Forexample Manyboyslikefootball Syntaxstudies Manyboys nounphrase subjectlikefootball verbphrase predicateMany adj attributefootball n object Whatdoessyntaxstudy Traditionally Word level partsofspeech n v adj adv prep pron conj art num Sentence level subject predicate object attribute adverbial predicative complement 4 2Syntagmatic paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations Syntagmaticrelations 横组合关系 therelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction originallyintroducedbySaussure Setsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsareoftenreferredtoasstructures e g HeisfromFrance Thelinearorderingofthefourwordsformsthesyntagmaticrelation Syntagmatic paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations paradigmaticrelations 纵聚合关系 thesetofrelationshipsalinguisticunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext Paradigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequence e g HeisfromFrance SheAmerica Syntagmatic paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations Wecangotomorrow syntagmaticrelationShemaycomesoonIwillasknextYoucouldsleepnow paradigmaticrelation Syntagmatic paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations Hierarchicalrelations sentencesarealsohierarchicallyordered becausesentencesconsistofclauses clausearemadeupofphrases andphrases inturn arecomposedofwords Sotheinnerlayeringofsentencesconstitutesitshierarchicalstructure ThehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanbeanalyzedbymeansofICAnalysis ICAnalysis e g HeisfromFranceHeisfromFranceisfromFrancefromFrance ICAnalysis OneoftheadvantagesofICAnalysisis thatitcanrevealthestructuralambiguitye g naughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirlsboysandgirlsnaughtyboysPractice Analyzethesentence Theyareflyingplanes ICAnalysis Practice PleaseanalyzethefollowingthreesentencesbymeansofICAnalysis 1 LittleTomrunsveryfast 2 Theseapplesareverysweet 3 Hisbrotherstayedathome Dotheyhavethesamehierarchicalstructure ICAnalysis 1 LittleTomrunsveryfast2 TheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetveryfastverysweet3 HisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeHisbrotherstayedathomeathome ICAnalysis Butweknowthattheyareradicallydifferentfromeachother Disadvantage ICAnalysiscannotrevealthedifferencesamongsomesentences LabeledICAnalysis 1 LittleTomrunsveryfast SLittleTom NPrunsveryfast VPLittle AdjTom Nruns Vveryfast ADVPvery Advfast Adv2 Theseapplesareverysweet STheseapples NPareverysweet VPThese Detapples Nare Vverysweet APvery Advsweet Adj LabeledICAnalysis 3 Hisbrotherstayedathome SHisbrother NPstayedathome VPHis Detbrother Nstayed Vathome PPat Phome NButthismethodistooredundantandtroublesome sopeoplemodifieditandusephrasemarkers PhraseMarkers 1 S2 SNPVPNPVPAPNVADVPDetNVAPAdjADVPAdvADVPAdjAdvAdvLittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweetLabeledbracketingisalsoappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentences S NP AP AdjLittle NTom VP Vruns ADVP ADVP Advvery Advfast 4 3TransformationalGenerativeGrammar TG Thiskindofanalysisonlyanalyzesthestaticstructureofsentence butnotdynamicstructure NoamChomskyclaimsthatTGGrammarstudiesbothstructures TransformationalGenerativeGrammar TG AvramNoamChomsky themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury bornonDecember7 1928 isanAmericanlinguist philosopher cognitivescientist politicalactivist author andlecturer Chomskyiswellknownintheacademicandscientificcommunityasoneofthefathersofmodernlinguistics Sincethe1960s hehasbecomeknownmorewidelyasapoliticaldissident ananarchist andalibertariansocialistintellectual Inthe1950s Chomskybegandevelopinghistheoryofgenerativegrammar whichhasundergonenumerousrevisionsandhashadaprofoundinfluenceonlinguistics Hisapproachtothestudyoflanguageemphasizes aninnatesetoflinguisticprinciplessharedbyallhumans knownasuniversalgrammar TransformationalGenerativeGrammar TG 第八届生成语言学国际学术研讨会 The8thInternationalConferenceofGenerativeLinguisticsintheOldWorld Aug 12 14 2010 BeingjingLanguageandCultureUniversity Chomsky skeynotespeech Povertyofstimulus unfinishedbusiness 刺激的匮乏 尚待努力的课题 他认为 儿童要习得语言要凭借两个条件 一是人脑先天机制 一是后天语言环境 在后天语言环境中 儿童听到的语言材料叫做 语言刺激 或 刺激 这种刺激是以句子的形式出现的 作为刺激的句子的数量 即儿童听到的句子的数量可能很多 但是与他后来能听懂的和说出来的句子数量相比 实际上很少 是 匮乏 的 儿童后来能听懂的句子和能说出的句子的数量实际是无限的 对于这种语言输入匮乏 语言产出无限的现象 生成语言学家进行的长期研究已取得了许多成果 但仍有许多问题需要进一步研究 TransformationalGenerativeGrammar TG NormChomsky ssomeimportantworks 1957 SyntacticStructure 1965 AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax 1981 LecturesonGovernmentandBinding 1986 Barriers 1993 AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory 1995 TheMinimalistProgram 1998 TheMinimalistInquiry Criteriaongoodgrammar ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription butalsoitsexplanation Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities languageuniversals betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages Therearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombined Chomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework UniversalGrammar 4 4Categories 范畴 Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence anounphraseoraverb Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword levelcategories traditionally partsofspeech 4 4 1Word levelcategories Majorlexicalcategories N V Adj Prep MinorLexicalcategories Det Deg Qual Aux Con Examplesofsomelexicalcategories Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined MeaningInflectionDistributionNote Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword scategoryisitsdistribution 4 4 2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures Phrasecategories thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories suchasNP N VP V AP A PP P Thestructure specifier head complementHead thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement thewordsontherightsideoftheheads Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule suchas NP Det N PP VP Qual V NP AP Deg A PP PP Deg P NP Note means consistof means canbeomitted meansothercomplementoptionsareavailable Phrasestructurerules Phrasestructurerules NP Det N PP e g thosepeople thefishontheplate prettygirlsVP Qual V NP e g alwaysplaygames finishassignmentsAP Deg A PP veryhandsome verypessimistic familiarwith veryclosetoPP Deg P NP ontheshelf intheboat quitenearthestation SpecifierXComplementHead XP XPrule TheXPrule XP specifier X complement Note ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram inwhichXstandsforN V AorP X Theory X barTheory XP Specifier X X X complement X head complement specifier XP Phraselevel X X Theory X barTheory Examples thefishontheplatequitenearthestationthefishontheplatequitenearthestationfishontheplatenearthestationQuestion WhatabouttheNPthestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversity X Theory X barTheory thestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitythestudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitystudentsoflinguisticsattheuniversitystudentsoflinguistics X Theory X barTheory XP Specifier X X X adjunct附加语 X X complement X head complement specifier XP Phraselevel X adjunct X Coordinationrule 并列规则 Coordinationstructures thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand or etc Coordinationrule X X ConXNote Xstandsfor acategoryatanystructurallevel Theasterisk indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon conjunction Coordinationrule Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties 1nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction 2acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated 3thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype 4thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined Phraseelements Specifiers Semantically specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead syntactically theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAPandPP Phraseelements Complements Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase Therecanbenocomplement onecomplement ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase e g appear break give TheXPrule revised XP Specifier X Complement Theinformationaboutaword scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsubcategorization 次范畴化 Phraseelements Complements Manysubcategoriesofverbs UsingChomsky searlyrepresentationofcomplements walk V Shewalks like V NP Shelikesthedog give V NPNP Shegivesthedogabone give V NPPP to Shegivesabonetothedog pretend V S fin Hepretendedhehadgonehome suggest V S base Hesuggestedwegohome intend V VP to Heintendedtogohome help V VP base Hehelpedcleanup tell V NPVP to Hetoldthemtocleanup make V NPVP base Hemadethemcleanup bet V NPNPS fin Hebetmetenpoundshewouldcleanup Phraseelements Complements asentence likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent Idoubtifshewillcome That ifarecomplementizers 标补语 theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause theunderlinedpartintheabovesentencesarecallcomplementphrase CP ExamplesofsomeAs Ns andPspermittingCPcomplements Note complementizier that whether CP complementphrase Modifiers 修饰语 Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads ModifierpositioninEnglish TheexpandedXPrule XP Spec Mod X Complement Mod Note differencebetweencomplementandmodifier Sentences theSrule TheSrule S NPVP S NP VP NP DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence S NPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences likeotherphrases alsohavetheirownheads Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection Infl astheirheads whichindicatesthesentence stenseandagreement InflP S NP specifier VP complement Infl head Sentences theSrule Inflrealizedbyatenselabel InflP S NP VP NP DetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary InflP S VP NP NP DetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence S NPAUX InflVPNP Det AP N PP AP AP Adj PP ADVP ADVP ADVP AdvVP Qual V NP PP S AP ADVP PP Deg PNP Phrasestructurerules AUX Infl Tense Modal Perf Prog Tense PresentPastModal can may must will shall etc Perf have ENProg be ING Phrasestructurerules Practice Pleaseusephrasestructurerulestowriteoutthetreediagramofthefollowingsentences 1 Thegirlisveryhappy 2 Sheputthebookonthedesk 3 Isuspectheisdishonest Transformations Phrasestructurerulecannotsatisfactorilydescribesomelanguagephenomena suchasyes noquestion wh question Transformation aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother Auxiliarymovement inversion DoinsertionDeepstructure surfacestructureWh movementMove andconstraintsontransformations Auxiliarymovement inversion Inversion MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP Inversion revised MoveInfltoC C CP S DetNInflVthetrainwillarrive NP VP Auxiliarymovement inversion Thepositiontheauxiliaryoccupiesisthesameasthepositionthatacomplementizeroccupies Assumption allsentencesoccurwithinlargerCPs whethertheyareembeddedornot Transformationcandonomorethanchangeanelement sposition Auxiliarymovement inversion CP S C NP InflDetNInflVWillthetrainearrive Aclausecanbeintroducedbyeitheracomplementizeroraninvertedauxiliary butnotbythetwoatthesametime VP emeansempty whichiscalledtrace 语迹 Doinsertion Doinsertion InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition CP C S NPInflVP Birdsfly CP CP C C S S InflNPInflVP NPInflVP Birdsdofly Dobirdsefly Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 NPresentV NV NV Deepstructure surfacestructure Considerthefollowingpairofsentences Johniseasytoplease Johniseagertoplease Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures Deepstructure surfacestructure Consideronemoresentence Flyingplanescanbedangerous ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous Deepstructure formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead ssub categorizationproperties itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence Surfacestructure correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten Deepstructure surfacestructure Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponent TheXPrule Deepstructure transformations Surfacestructure Subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements Wh movement Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences Whatlanguagescanyouspeak Whatcanyoutalkabout Thesesentencesmayoriginateas Youcanspeakwhatlanguages Youcantalkaboutwhat Wh movement Wh movement Moveawhphr