英语语言学教程-考试精华.doc

Chapter 11、What is language?语言 Language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. 2、Design features of language语言结构特征The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity (the most important feature of language), displacement（It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.）3、Function of language语言的功能The use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include informative function信息(the major role of language), interpersonal人际 function(people establish their relationship with the help of language), performative行事 function(by Austin and Searle in pragmatics), emotive表情 function, phatic寒暄 communion(some routine expressions), recreational娱乐 function(taking pleasure from language)and metalingual元语言 function(Language can be used to talk about itself).4、 Definition of linguistics语言学The scientific study of human language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.5、main branches of linguisticsPhonetics语音学：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech。Phonology音系学：studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. Morphology形态学：is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax句法：is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学：examines how meaning is encoded in a language. Pragmatics语用学：is the study of meaning in context.6、phoneme:音素音位is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.7、important distinctions in linguistics语言学中的重要区分1）descriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs规定：The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.2）synchronic vs. Diachronic共时和历时：A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. 3）langue and parole.语言和言语：Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. 4）competence vs. Performance 语言能力和语言运用：A language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.（by Chomsky）.Chapter 21、Phonetics语音学: the study of speech sounds, which is part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds, and it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. Phonology音系学 is concerned with the linguistic knowledge of speech and the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:语音三领域1）Articulatory 发音phonetics the study of the production of speech sounds2）Acoustic 声学phonetics the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3）perceptual or Auditory phonetics感知听觉 the study of perception of speech sounds 2、Consonants辅音: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.Vowels元音: produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 区别：the distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.阻塞气流。3、Manners of articulation:发音方式：stop/ plosive塞音 (oral stop, nasal鼻 stop)、 fricative摩擦音、 approximant近似音、 lateral边音、affricate塞擦音、 nasal鼻音Places of articulation:发音部位：bilabial双唇音、labiodental唇齿、dental齿间 、alveolar齿龈、postalveolar齿龈后 、retroflex卷舌音、palatal 硬腭、velar软腭、glottal声门. 6、The description of vowels：1）. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)2）. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3）. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4）. Lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)7、Phoneme: (of French origin, means speech-sound) 音位a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. Its represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. 8、Minimal pair（最小对立体）: a pair of words between which the phonological difference is minimal because they are identical in form except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. 9、The allophones: the variants of a phoneme 音位变体They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.条件10、Phonetic similarity 发音近似性means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Complementary distribution互补分布状态: they never occur in the same context.11、Phonological process: 音系过程定义 a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.Any phonological process must have three aspects to it: 条件 (1) a set of sounds to undergo the process; (2) a set of sounds produced by the process; (3) a set of situations in which the process applies.12、devoicing rule （清音化规则）e.g. voiced fricative voiceless/_ voicelessThe rule reads: A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound. Nasalization rule: （鼻音化规则）- nasal + nasal / _ + nasal The rule reads: An oral vowel is transformed into the corresponding nasal sound when it appears before a nasal consonant.13、Assimilation:同化现象：a process by which one sound takes on some or all characteristics of a neighboring sound. Nasalization鼻音化、Dentalization齿音、Velarization软腭are all instances Assimilation. is often used synonymously with coarticulation协同发音If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音). If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）, as is the case of map.14、suprasegmental features: 定义the aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features 特征are syllable音节, stress重音, tone声调, and intonation语调15、Stress重音 refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. A basic distinction 区别is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter usually due to an increase in loudness, length or pitch. 16、Intonation声调 involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Chapter 31、Morpheme 词素定义is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (the minimal unit of meaning ,Greek word “morphe” means “form”.) Types of morphemes 词素分类：(1) Free morpheme & Bound morpheme自由词素和黏附 (2) Root, affix and stem词根词缀词干(3) Inflectional affix & derivational affix屈折词缀派生词缀2、Free morphemes自由词素: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes黏附词素: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.3、A root词根 is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. E.g. inter-nation-al-ism, friendlyAn affix 词缀is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). E.g. para-lingual, pseudo-nym, real-ize, books etc. A stem词干 is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friends, friendships, girlfriends etc.4、Inflection 屈折变化is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attachedInflectional affixes:屈折词缀 only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. e.g. flowers, catches, finished, doing, mothers etc.区别：The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1)Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes: they often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, Johns, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. (2)Inflectional affixes dont change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers(3)that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake.(4)In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.5、Morphology形态学: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components morphemes.6、Word词的定义 is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group.Identification of words特征factors：Stability稳定性、Relative uninterruptibility相对连续性、A minimum free form最小自由形式Classification of words分类：Variable and invariable words、Grammatical words and lexical words、Closed-class words and open-class words、Word class7、Word formation构词法：refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).Derivational way of formation派生构词法, refers to the process of how new words are formed.Compound复合词: it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. e.g. highborn, sleepwalk, pain-killer Derivation派生词: it shows the relation between roots and affixes. Derivational affixes派生词缀: often change the lexical meaning and might or might not change the word class, in addition, derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. Derivational affixes can be prefixes前缀 or suffixes后缀. e.g. accidental, unbelievable, alcoholic, prediction, creativity etc.8、Lexical change proper：(1) invention （新创词语）：Kodak, Coke, nylon(2) blending (混成法)：Two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. Eg: Transfer + resister - transistor (晶体管) Smoke + fog - smog （烟雾）Teleprinter + exchange - telex（电传）(3) abbreviation/clipping（缩写词/略语）A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words E.g. advertisement - ad, mathematics -math, influenza -flu, refrigerator -fridge,(4) acronym （首字母缩写词）: is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization which has a heavily modified headword or a long word. E.g. WTO: World Trade Organization, EEC: European Economic Community, Aids: acquired immune deficiency syndrome (5) back formation （逆构词法）：refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E.g. television - televise, editor - edit, enthusiasm - enthuse(6) analogical creation （类推造字）: the principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. E.g. work: wrought, worked; slay: slew, slayed. (7) borrowing ( 借用，借词): English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.German: hamburger, 9、Allomorph同位语素: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.Morphophonology词素音位学: Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology or morphonemics.Assimilation同化: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.Dissimilation异化: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.10、phonological change音位变化：(1) loss脱落: e.g. niht /nixt/ - night, and - /nd/ or /n/(2) addition添加: sounds may be added to the original sound sequence. E.g. strike - sutoraiki (Japanese)(3) metathesis互换: a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.E.g. brid - bird, ask /aks/-/ask/(4) assimilation同化: E.g. impossible, immobile11、semantic change 语义演变：(1) broadening扩展: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. E.g. holiday, bird，task(2) narrowing缩小: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. E.g. girl, liquid, deer (动物)(3) meaning shift:转换 E.g. bead (prayer)(4) class shift ( zero-derivation or conversion)等级转换: E.g. engineer: n.- v. stump: n.- v (挑战)(5) folk etymology通俗变化语: refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term of from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. E.g.history ：knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrativeChapter 41、Syntax句法： is the study of how sentences are structured or how words are combined with others to form sentences and in what order.The syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for:1）the grammaticality of sentences 2）word order3）structural ambiguity4）grammatical relations 5）whether different structures have differing meanings or the same meaning6）the creative aspect of language.2、Endocentric construction 向心结构：is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head. Exocentric construction离心结构： refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connective (be + complement) construction.3、Phrase短语：is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the sub-predicate structure typical of clauses.Clause小句：a constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.Sentence句子：is the minimum part of language that express a complete thought.Chapter 51、Semantics语义学 is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language. Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular. Pragmatics语用学: The meaning of utterances2、Denotation外延:concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes or refers to.3、Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1)Conceptual meaning概念: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2)Associative meaning联想：a.Connotative meaning:内涵 What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.b.Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.c.Affective meaning情感: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer.d.Reflected meaning:反射 What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.Collocative meaning:搭配 What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3)Thematic meaning:主位 What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.4、The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of m