语言学(1-4) 章.doc

What is linguistics?n Linguistics is the science of language, alternatively, the scientific study of language.n Why is it scientific?n A branch of humanities and social science.n It has a set of established theories, methods and branches. n It does not study a specific language but language in general. It is based on the systematic investigation of linguistics data（written and spoken）n Main/Core Branches (Micro-linguistics)n Phonetics (语音学) Production, transmission, and perception of speech soundsn Phonology （音系学）Rules of sound patterning; phonemen Morphology（形态学）Rules of word formation; morpheme n Syntax （句法学）Rules of grammatical sentence formationn Semantics （语义学）Study of meaning with the context disregardedn Pragmatics （语用学）Study of meaning in contextn Interdisciplinary Branches (Macro-linguistics) n Psychological Linguistics （心理语言学） n Socio-linguistics （社会语言学） n Computational Linguistics (计算机语言学)n Stylistics （文体学)n Applied Linguistics (应用语言学)n Distinction between Phonetics and Phonologyn Phonetics: the study of sound used in linguistic communication (speech sounds).n Phonology: the study of how sounds are put together and used.n Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating, whereas phonology is the study of subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focus on chaos, but the second on order. n Macro-linguistics:（黑体）n Psychological linguistics: investigation of the interrelation of language and mind, in processing utterance and in language acquisition. n It aims to answer such questions as n how the human mind works when we use language, n how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, n how we memorize and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication. n More on Page 18.n Socio-linguistics: the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristic of its speaker as these constantly interact and change within a speech community.n Anthropological linguistics: (See Hu 2006:18-19)n Computational linguistics: an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human/ natural language. n Applied linguistics: applications of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems. In a narrow sense, it only refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and L2, testing, translation and so on.(See Liu, 2006:327). （红）Some Important Distinctions：n Prescriptive(规定式) VS descriptive（描述式）n 9a Dont say X.n 9b People do not say X.n Prescriptive: If the linguistics aims to lay down the rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say. It is prescribing how things ought to be.n Descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is descriptive. It is describing how things are. n Modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammar was strongly prescriptive.n Synchronic(共时): The description of language at some point of time in history. e.g. A Grammar of Modern Greek, Shakespeares language, etc.n Diachronic(历时):The description of language as its changes through time. It is historical study of language, but not historical linguistics. It studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. How is the Indo-European family develops through history? Langue and Parolen Made by Saussure（Father of modern linguistics）n Abstract vs. concrete:n Linguistic competence= langue(语言),is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, or the set of conventions and rules that the language users all have to abide by.n parole（言语）, the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, refers to the realization of language in actual use, the concrete use of the conventions and the application of rules. It is the naturally occurring of language events.n Stable vs. varyingn Langue is stable. It does not change frequently. But parole is not. It varies from person to person and from situation to situation.n The distinction is for the systemic study of language. The objects of linguists is the langue of each community.Competence and Performance：n Made by Chomsky Noamn Competence: an ideal language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules.n Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.( Chomsky, 1965:3)n As a language user we have the intuitive to grasp the rules of the language, and though we may not be able to state the rules explicitly. n A speakers competence is stable, but performance is not. It is often influenced by many psychological and social factors.n According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine the data of performance, the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.n Chomskys distinction of competence and performance is related to the distinction of Saussure, but he does not accept the view of seeing language as a mere systematic inventory of terms. It should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative process. n What is language?n Design features of languagen Functions of language.n Origin of language (optional)What Is Language?n Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.n Design Features (设计/定义特征)n What are the design features of language?n The features that define our human languages can be called design features. They are: n Arbitrariness (任意性)n Duality (双重性)n Creativity (创造性)n Displacement (移位性)n Arbitrariness : the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationships to their meaning. i.e., there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. It has different levels：n A) Between the sound and morpheme and its meaning. e.g. onomatopoeic words:n Creak，Bang，Bow bow，cuckoon B) at the syntactic leveln Syntax is the ways the sentences are constructed according to the grammar. Language is not arbitrary at this level. n (a) He came in and sat down.n (b) He sat down and came in.n C）Arbitrariness and conventionn Let sleeping dog lie. n Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality makes learning of language laborious. It is the conventionality of a language that is more worthy of noticing compared with arbitrariness. n Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level (words) are composed of elements of the secondary level (sounds) and each of the two levels has its own principle of organization. (Lyons, 1981:20)n The secondary units are meaningless and the primary units have distinct and identifiable meaning. n The property of duality exist in such a system, namely, with both elements and units.n Meaningless sounds- morpheme - words - language n e.g. /k/, /a:/, /p/ ,/s/ - carps and parksn Creativity: Language is resourceful because of its duality and Recursiveness. n Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistics units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are new but can be instantly understood by people. It is human specific. e.g. n A three-eyed white monkey is in the bed of the French Emperor. n Recursiveness provides a theoretical basis for languages potential to create endless sentences. eg:n a) He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates whon Displacement：Language enables its user to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and place) at the moment of communication. In other words, language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined, matters in the past, present or future or in far-away places. n Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.n Animals communication systems are under “immediate stimulus control”, but human language is “stimulus free”.Functions of Languagen Jackobson and His Categoriesn 6 elements of communication Speaker/ addresser 说话者 , Addressee 听话者 , Context 语境 Message 内容 , Code 形式 , Contact 接触 n 6 functions of language EMOTIVE 情感的, CONATIVE 意动的 , REFERENTIAL 概念的POETIC 诗学的, METALINGUAL元语言的, PHATIC 寒暄的 Halliday and his categoriesn 7 functions （in his early works）n Instrumental （工具性功能）n Regulatory （控制性功能）n Representational （表述功能）n Personal (个人功能)n Interaction （交往功能）n Heuristic（启发功能）n Imaginative （想象功能）n Meta-functions （Halliday: 1994）n IDEATIONAL: (概念功能)a model of experience and logical relations Informative function信息功能 ( 见下面解析)n INTERPERSONAL: （人际功能） enacts social relationship Performative施为功能 ( 见下面解析)Emotive function 情感功能 ( 见下面解析)Phatic communion 寒暄功能 ( 见下面解析)n TEXTUAL: （语篇功能） creates relevance to contextn Recreational function 娱乐功能n Metalingual function 元语功能Informative functionn Language serves for the expression of content: that is (Hu,2006:10)n When language is used to give information, it is informative.n e.g. Water boils at 100C. n The most important function of language, by which the status of the people are established and maintained.n e.g. Dear Professor, Performative functionn Primarily used to change the social status of the person, often in quite formal and ritualized language.n Now, I announce you husband and wife.n I name the ship Queen Elizabeth. n It can also extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasion.Emotive function n Means of getting rid of the nervous energy when we are under press.n Damn (when someone strikes his finger with a hammer.)n Hurray！; Wow, what a sight.Phatic communion n Some small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.n God bless you.Meta-languagen Meta-language: language used for talking about talk or think about thinkingSigns: Na, H2O, Man +HUMAN, +MALE, +ADULTWhat have we talked about in this chapter?n LinguisticsDefinition and understanding ScopeImportant distinctionsn LanguageDefinition and understanding Design featuresFunctions OriginChapter 2 Speech Soundsv Phonetics Speech Organs Orthographic Transcription of Speech Sounds IPA Classification of English Speech Soundsv Consonant v Vowelsv Phonology Phonetics VS Phonology Coarticulation Phone, Phonemes and allophones Phonological Process Phonological Rules Distinctive Features Suprasegmental Features Stress Tone IntonationPhonetics v Phonetics: the study of speech sounds that occur in all human languages. (Liu, 2006:45) It can be divided into: Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds (the speakers point of view) Acoustic phonetics: the study of physical properties of speech sounds (the transmission ) Perceptive/ auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of the speech sounds (the hearers point of view)Cavities of Speech/ Vocal organs: Nasal cavity = nose m, n and N Oral cavity= mouth v Tongue: tip, blade, front, back and root.v Uvular, soft palate, hard palate, teeth ridge, teeth and lips. Pharyngeal cavity v Vocal folds （中国海洋大学 1999） Apart: voiceless Close together: voiced Totally closed: glottal stop ?International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) A standardized and internationally accepted transcription of speech sounds inaugurated by International Phonetic Association in 1897. Proposed by Otto Jespersen (Danish Grammarian and phonetician) Basic principle: A separate letter selected from main European language for one sound, the same letter for the same sound in all the languages.v Roman letters, new letters and diacriticsv Narrow and Broad Transcriptions Broad transcriptionv Transcription of speech sounds by using a simple set of symbols. Narrow transcriptionv Transcription of speech sounds by using more specific symbols, such as diacritics(变音符), to show the phonetic details of speech sounds. (复旦大学 1996；浙江大学 2001)Consonants and VowelsIn phonetics, a segment is either a consonant or a vowel. The distinction between them lies in the obstruction of the air stream.v Consonant A speech sound produced by a closure in the vocal tract（声道）, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. v Two Factors for Consonant Categorization： Manner of Articulation (发音方法) Place of Articulation（发音位置）v Manners of Articulation - the ways in which articulation can be accomplished. The articulators may: Close off the oral tract for an instant or a long period of time; Narrow the space considerably; Modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.In terms of Manners of Articulation, the consonants are divided into:v Stop (爆破音) p, b, t, d, k, gv Nasal (鼻音) m, n, Nv Fricative (摩擦音) f, v, W, T, M, V, hv Approximant (近音) w, , j v Lateral (边音) l v Trill/ roll（颤音） r v Tap and flap (闪音): American substitution for d, t ,n, e.g. city, letter and dirty.v Affricative (塞擦音): stop+ fricative tM, dVv Place of Articulation - the point where a constant is made. Practically, a consonant can be made at any place between the lips and vocal folds.In terms of Place of Articulation, consonants can be divided into: Bilabial（双唇音） p, b, m Labiodental （唇齿音） f, v Dental（齿音） W, T Alveolar（齿龈音） t, d, n, s, z, r, l Post alveolar （齿龈后音） M, V Retroflex （卷舌音） Palatal （硬颚音） j Velar （软腭音） k, g, N Uvlar （小舌音） Pharyngeal （咽音） Glottal （喉音）:? cotton, fattenIn addition: In the description of the consonants, there are two sounds sharing the same place and manner of articulation. They are distinguished by Voicing (带声性), the left one is voiceless, but the right one voiced. Therefore, factors for description of consonants amount to three. Namely, Voicing, place and manner of articulation.Vowel A speech sound produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose. See (Hu:2005, 29)v Cardinal vowels(基本元音) a set of vowels qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels in existing languages.(33)v Secondary cardinal vowels (次要基本元音) vowels got by reversing the lip-rounding for a given position.v Schwa（中元音）ERequirements for Description of English Vowels The height of tongue raising (high,mid, low) The position of the highest part of tongue (front, central, back) Length or tenseness of the vowels (tense= long, lax=short) Lip-rounding (rounded or unrounded)Phonology v Phonology Definition Relationship (difference and similarity) between phonetics and phonology.v From Phonetics to Phonology Coarticulation Phonemes Allophonesv Phologocial process, phonological rules and distinctive features Assimilation Epenthesis Epenthesis, rule ordering and elsewhere condition (剩余位置条件) Distinctive features (区别特征)v Suprasegmental Syllable Stress Intonation v Phonology The study of the sound patterns (语音模式) and sound systems（语音系统） of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Procedure: v Individual language analysis phonological structure discovery cross-language property comparison hypothesis rules underlying the sound patterns of all languagesv Phoneme（音位） A basic unit of phonological study, is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. It is not an any particular sound, but rather it is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /p/: p and ph speak and peakv By convention, the phonemic transcriptions (phoneme) are placed within / /”, while the phonetic transcriptions (phone) are within “ ”. In this sense, “broad and “phonemic” transcription coincide. Once the phonetic details given, “ ” must be used. The narrow transcription must be put in square bracket. v Minimal pair test: Technique for phoneme identification Minimal pair（最小对比对）A pair of words that have different meanings and differ by only a single sound in the same position. e.g. pit /bit, look/ took, and keep/ coop. (Liu: 2006: 335) The test can be used to find out which sound substitution causes difference in meaning.v Alternatively, phoneme simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants the phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrast. (Hu，2005：40)v Allophone (音位变体) The different realizations / phones of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments /contexts. /p/ p / s_ ph/ elsewhere (剩余位置条件) (Note: “_” is the position the changed sound appears.The choice of the allophones are not at random, but rule-governedv Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning. But they are all in complementary distribution（互补分布）.v Not all the phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must bear some Phonetic Similarity. v The allophones are both phonetically similar and in complementary distribut