语言学Linguistics.doc

LinguisticsThree words you must know before learning:Language lgwid 语言Linguistics ligwistiks 语言学Linguist ligwist 语言学家What is the relation between linguistics and the courses we have learned in the previous two years?listening, speaking, reading , writing they are language skills ;linguistics, including literaturelanguage knowledge 知其然,知其所以然Course objectives: 1.mastery of basic linguistic terms concepts and theories.2.To arouse your interest in language and language phenomenon.3.Let you know the branches of linguistics. 4.preparation for further study and research about language.Chapter One An Introduction to language and Linguistics1. The Definition of Language语言的定义：(1)语言是一种社会现象 语言区别于其他社会现象的专门的特点是 它是作为人们交际的工具、作为人们交流思想的工具来为社会服务的; (2) 它是作为人们的思维工具来为社会服务的。 就语言自身而言 ,它是由语音和语义结合而成、由词汇和语法所构成的符号系统。语言这个符号系统区别于其他符号系统如 红绿灯、旗语、代数符号等的特点是 社会性 ,复杂性 ,生成性。 ”Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. words are symbols, they have concrete signs (sounds), and the sounds represent a certain meaning.Vocal: linguistic symbols are various movements of speech organs.Arbitrary: a linguistic symbol is composed of two things: speech sounds (form) and the idea (meaning) the sounds convey. The relation between the sounds and their meaning are not naturally, directly related.2. The Origin of Language2.1 The divine-origin theory Christianity: God Egyptians: The God Thoth The Hindus: The God Brahma and Goddess Sarasvati2.2 The invention theory The bow-wow theory 拟声说The pooh-pooh theory 感叹说The “yo-he-ho” theory 劳动喊声说2.3 The evolutionary theory “language” does not refer to any certain language like English or Chinese. There are over 100 language families in the world. We will list top ten language families: pp 4-5一、印欧语系 Indo-European family 二、乌拉尔语系 The Uralic Family 三、阿尔泰语系 The Altaic Family 四、汉藏语系 The Sino-Tibetan Family五、南岛语系 The Malayo-Polynesian Family 六、闪含语系亚非语系The Afro-Asiatic family七、高加索语系 The Caucasian Family 八、南印度达罗毗荼语系The Dravidian Family九、南亚语系 The Austro-Asiatic Family 十、尼日尔刚果语系 The Niger-Congo Family 3. The Design Features of LanguageWe would all agree that Language is essential to human beings but we may find it hard to specify what makes our Language advantageous over animal “Languages”. As Bertrand Russell once observed: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”The features that define our human Languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.3.1 Arbitrariness (任意性)1.There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is a sign of sophistication, unlimited sources of expression. 2.In other words, there are no direct or intrinsic links between form and meaning or between the signal and the message.3.This nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play “Romeo and Juliet”:A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.4.However, language is not absolutely arbitrary:There are instances in all languages of what is traditionally referred to as onomatopoeia .nu.mtupi n. 拟声,拟声语,声喻法:Such as “cuckoo”, “crash”, in English.“碰！碰！枪响了两声, “小鸟在枝上叽叽喳喳” in Chinese. 模仿金属的声音：clash, clank, ting, tinkle, clang, jangle, ding-dong, tick-tack3.2 Duality (二重性)Language system has two sets of structures: one of sounds, the other of meanings. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. For example:First set :l u k t limited，meaningless sounds;Second set：buk luk tuk unlimited，meaningful words3.3 Creativity (创造性)1.We can use language to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that word before. 2.Language is creative in terms of its potential to create endless sentences. l u k t forty-eight soundsbuk luk tuk thousands of words3.4 Displacement (移位性)Language can be used to refer to things which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places. The remoteness in time and space would not be a barrier in human communication. 4. The Functions of language4.1 Informative function(信息传递功能)Language is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. E.g.The earth revolves around the sun.4.2 Interpersonal function (人际功能) People establish and maintain their status in a society.E.g.Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant 王教授，您的学生某某4.3 Performative function (言语行为功能)Language is used to change the social status of persons, to do things, and to perform actions. E.g.I hereby declare the meeting open. I declare the wedding ceremony begin.4.4 Emotive/expressive function(感情功能)Language is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.4.5 Phatic function(寒暄功能) Phatic communion (交感性谈话)Language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather serve this function. 4.6 Recreational function(娱乐功能)It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.4.7 Metalingual function(元语言功能)1.Our language can be used to talk about itself.2.Meta-language is a language used to make statements about a language. The language about which they are made is correspondingly the object language.3.A Chinese grammar of English uses Chinese as a meta-language for the description of English.4.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的语言符号体系。5. The Definition of LinguisticsLinguistics is the scientific study of the languages of all human societies. Linguistics is not uniquely English. It discusses all human languages. A linguist should have a wide experience of different types of languages. He studies the general rules upon which all languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in the societies in which they are used. 6. Basic Distinctions in Linguistics6.1 Descriptive and Prescriptive描述性和规定性A descriptive linguist describes and analyzes facts observed. He talks about what people actually say, whereas a prescriptive linguist tries to lay down rules for correct behavior. He tells people what to say and how to say it. 6.2 Synchronic and Diachronic studies共时研究和历时研究This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure Language exists in time and changes through time. We can study a language as it exists at any one time or over a period of time. A synchronic statement is a statement about a language at one period of time. E.g.现代英语语法“莎士比亚英语的特点A diachronic statement, however, is a statement about the changes in a language that took place over a period of time. 语言学发展史皖西方言的演化6.3 Langue 语言 and parole 言语l:g prulThis is a distinction also made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. langue can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language. It is abstract, is not actually spoken by anyone, and is relatively stable and systematic.E.g.English， Chinese Parole refers to the realization of langue. It is the concrete use of the conventions or application of the rules. It is specific to the situation in which it occurs, is always a naturally occurring event, and is subject to personal and situational constraints. In brief, langue refers a certain language in general, parole refers language used by a certain person.Langue is social.Parole is individual.6.4 Competence and performance语言能力和语言运用This distinction was made by an American linguist, Noam Chomsky in his “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” in the 1950s. 句法理论要略Competence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language. It enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.It is often influenced by psychological and social factors.Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual.He looks at it more from a psychological point of view. 6.5 traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussures book “Course in General Linguistics” 普通语言学教程in the early 20th century.2.Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar , on the other hand, tended to emphasize or even over-emphasize, the importance of the written word. 3.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.Weak points of Traditional Grammar规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，规定语法学家认为：I didnt do nothing.正确的解释为:It is not true that I did nothing.或 I did something.但是，英语使用的现实却是这两种相互矛盾的语义都存在。语义的区别是通过语言的语音规律加以实现的。在前者， “didnt”重读，而后者 “didnt不重读 。再看下列例句：All the children didnt sleep (All the children failed to sleep.) All the children didnt sleep. (Not all the children failed to sleep.)这两个话语在语义上的差异也是违反了传统逻辑规律。语音规律的介入很好地解决了这一问题： All the children didnt sleep. (重音落在sleep上，且使用降调) All the children didnt sleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升调）在看以下例句：I cant care less. I can care less.按照逻辑的一般规律，这两个话语应该有着相互对立的语义，但是它们的理性语义却是一样的，即：I dont mind.事实上，这种突破一般逻辑规律的现象在其它语言中也时常可见。以汉语为例：今天街上好热闹。今天街上好不热闹。再看汉语中的“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法：他差点儿摔倒了。他差点儿没摔倒。用“差点儿”或“差点儿没”去与说话人不希望实现的事情搭配，那么它们都是指事情接近实现而没有实现。我差点儿通过了考试。我差点儿没通过考试。如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。7. Main Branches of LinguisticsIt is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonologic, adj. 音韵学上的morphologic.m:fldik ,形态学的syntacticsintktik ,句法的semantic simntik adj. 语义的pragmatic prgmtik. 语用的The following are these main branches of linguistics.7.1 Phonetics 语音学PHONETICS studies speech sounds, including： 1.the production of speech,2.the sounds of speech3.the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllable. It deals with the sound system of a Language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating . Phonology is the study of a set of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focus on chaos while the second focus on order.7.3 Morphology 形态学MORPHOLOGY is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processes. 7.4 Syntax 句法学SYNTAX is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. 7.5 Semantics 语义学SEMANTICS examines how meaning is encoded in a Language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of Language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. 7.6 Pragmatics 语用学PRAGMATICS is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of Language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way Language is used to communicate rather than with the way Language is structured.The above discussion is mainly from the viewpoint of micro-linguistics. 8. Branches of Macro-linguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with Language. Other disciplines such as :psychology, sociology, ethnographyengrfi n. 人种学, 人种论the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with Language.Therefore, it is not surprising we have some branches of Macro-linguistics.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of Language and mind, e.g. in processing and producing utterances and in Language acquisition.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is an umbrella term, which covers a variety of different interests in Language and society, including the social functions of Language and the social characteristics of its users. 8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAs a science, the study of Languages is somewhat older than anthropology. The two disciplines became closely associated in the early days of anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten Languages. 8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field, which centers on the use of computers to process or produce human Language.8.5 Neuro-linguisticsIt tries to construct a model of the brains control over the process of speech and hearing, to explain how many messages the nervous system has to send out to various speech organs in order to produce one individual sound and in what order they are sent, and to work on the treatment of language disorder. (aphasics feizik失语症, aphonia 失音症)8.6 Mathematical linguisticsIt studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics. One approach is to study the application of statistical techniques in linguistic theory and description. 8.7 Corpus linguistics语料库语言学Corpus linguistics is about investigating the way people use language in speech and writing. It introduces the corpus-based approach to linguistics, based on the analysis of large databases of real language examples stored on computer.Lecture 5The Structures of English (1) Syntax （句法学）5.1 Defining syntaxSyntax is the study of how words combine into sentences; specifically the syntactic patterns of sentences /internal structures of sentences /syntactic properties and functions, and the rules governing the syntactic combinations. Syntax accounts for: the grammaticality of sentences;word order; hierarchical organization of sentences; grammatical relations whether different structures have different meanings or the same meaning; the creative aspect of language.5.1.1 Grammatical KnowledgeMental GrammarThe boy found the ball.*The boy found quickly.*The boy found in the house.Prescriptive GrammarBill hired Mary.Mary hired Bill.Mary was hired by Bill.Descriptive GrammarHe has everything a woman wants,and he wants everything a woman has.Recursiveness/ Recursion递归性A childrens rhyme . This is the farmer sowing the corn,that kept the cock that crowed in the morn,that waked the priest all shaven and shorn,that married the man all tattered and torn,that kissed the maiden all forlorn forlorn,that milked the cow with the crumpled horn, that tossed the dog,that worried the cat,that killed the rat,that ate the malt,that lay in the house that Jack built.5.2 Sentence patterns/types in Englishi) Mary is a nurse/poor. SVC ii) Mary weighs 120 pounds. SVA iii) Mary came. SV iv) Mary cheated me. SVO v) Mary called me Jim. SVOC vi) Mary put her child down. SVOA vii) Mary lend him some money.SVOO5.3 Syntactic relationsPositional relation (word order, horizontal relations, syntagmatic relations; chain relationsSyntagmatic 结构段的, 语段的 relation refers to the sequential or linear arrangement of words in a language. Any language has its patterns of arrangement.Word order determines syntactic relations and sentence meaning, esp. for those analytical languages like Chinese. （分析性的语言）Chinese is analytical language.分析语：分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用语序和虚词来表达语法关系。He went to school.他去学校了。He has gone abroad.他已经出国了。Synthetic language-综合语English is synthetic-analytic language.5.4 The hierarchical structuring of EnglishSentences are not strings of words put together linearly but rather hierarchical constructions.e.g. young boys and girlsIC analysis 直接成分分析法John likes singing Chinese songs.John likes?likes singing?singing Chinese?BUT: likes (singing (Chinese songs) John (likes (singing (Chinese songs)1) Binary cutting 两分法2) Immediate constituent/ ultimate constituent直接成分 最终成分3) Tree diagram/ labeled tree diagram树形图 加标记的树形图 4) IC analysis: the approach to analyze sentences into immediate constituents by binary cuttings until obtaining the ultimate constituentsPractice: Apply IC analysis onto the following sentence:The world today is highly competitive.offadj. 远的, 休假的, 空闲的, 落后懈怠的adv. 离开, 出发, 距离隔断, 分割, 不继续运行, 下台prep. 离开, 脱落, 下班vi. 离开, 走开But IC analysis cannot remove the ambiguity as found in Flying planes can be dangerous.explain why structures like the following look similar but basically different: a. He is easy to please. b. He is eager to please.5.5 Surface and deep structuresLecture 6The Structures of English (2)What is meant by IC analysis?What are surface structure and deep structure? Analyze how the following sentence is ambiguous:Flying planes can be dangerous.Deep Structure 1A plane that is flying can be dangerous. A plane used for flying can be dangerous.Deep Structure 2Flying planes can be dangerous. 两种歧义分别是： (1)The plane which are flying in the sky can be dangerous. (2)The work flying planes (dr