毕业论文范文解析 论理解的选择.doc

毕业论文范文评析（语言学类）发布者:张金福 杨然发表时间:2007-5-3 22:26:06Selectivity Of UnderstandingAbstract：This paper discusses the selective feature of understandingThe process of understanding is in nature that of constructing meaning and obtaining information, meanwhile, to construct meaning is to integrate different signs into a text by means of metaphor and metonymy and to naturalize the meaning of the text, which turns out to be a process of constant selection. In addition, the contextual factors such as different individuals or groups and different cultural backgrounds make the understanding process selective. The knowledge of the selective feature of understanding plays an important role in text reading, translation and daily communication, especially intercultural communication practice.Key words: understanding, selectivity, metaphor and metonymy, naturalize- tion, context(点评：摘要第一句中的selective feature of understanding与论文第三部分、第四部分不太相符，建议改为selectivity of understanding。) Introduction In modern society, communication becomes one of the important parts of peoples life, whether it is daily communication or intercultural communication. In this process, understanding is definitely the most important link, for the aim of communication is to understand each other. Yet different people of different ages, sex, or with different social backgrounds under different contexts may have different interpretations towards the same text, that is to say, understand- ing is selective. For example, the sentence “今天太累啦!” ( So tired today!) may have the following four different interpretations under different contexts by different people: a. 咱们回家吧。(Lets go back home.) b. 该睡觉了。 (Its time for bed.) c. 你洗一下碗吧。 (Could you wash the dishes?) d.今天不看书了。 (I will not do any reading today.) Why does this happen? Are there any reasons underlying these superficial phenomena? The author of this paper will provide a strong theoretical basis for these phenomena, give a systematic explanation of the selectivity of understanding and also raise peoples awareness of it in text reading, translation, and communication practice.(作者在这里提出本文的论点探讨理解的选择性及其现实意义。)1.Defining selectivity of understanding According to Verschueren (1999), the process of using and understand- ing language is that of constantly making choices, consciously or unconsciously, for language-internal and/or language-external reasons. These choices can be situated at any level of linguistic form: phonetic/phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, and semantic. They may range over variety-internal options, or they may involve regionally, socially or functionally distributed types of variation. This is what we call selectivity. As for the selectivity of understanding, choices are made at the level of semantic form or meaning, and this feature comes into being as a result of the interaction between internal and external factors of language which will be elaborated in detail in later chapters. (在论证之前，先用语言学家Verschueren之言，定义什么是理解的选择性。这种定义具有权威性。） 2. The process of selective understanding The process of understanding is, in nature, that of constructing mean- ing and obtaining information, and in order to construct meaning and obtain information, signs, which are basically arbitrary, should be organized into a text by going through a series of choices. Where there is choice, there is meaning, this is a basic rule in communication, and still it can be applied to the understanding process, or meaning construction, which could be explicated in the following two aspects: a) signs are organized selectively into a text and its meaning is determined by a special group and then naturalized; b) to do the sign-organizing job, metaphor and metonymy are commonly used, the ways of which are also full of choices. (为了阐明理解的选择性，作者主要从两个方面入手，先从内部构建机制定论理解的选择性即意义上的选择性，理解的过程本质上就是意义生成加信息获取的过程。) 2.1 Meaning construction A meaningful text is fundamentally a selective organization of a set of signs. According to F. de Saussure， all of the languages and sings are constructed on the basis of a coordinate formed in two dimensions, namely, syntagm and paradigm. Syntagm refers to the composition of these signs while paradigm deals with the relation of choice. An alphabet is a paradigm while the letters chosen from it can be composed of words and expressions, which is a kind of syntagm. The units in a paradigmatic relation with others in a paradigm should be different from each other and consequently obtain their separate meaning. To put it more clearly, the meaning construction of these units is defined by their relationship with other units, which havent been selected out in a paradigm. This is a sort of selective/choice relation. For example, in the eyes of laymen, in the paradigm of animals on the farm, the meaning of the unit cow is distinguished from pig, horse and sheep; however, from a farmers point of view, it means differently in that it is differentiated from heifer, steer, and bullock. In this example, it is because of the differences between each unit in a paradigm that their separate meaning is constructed and therefore one type of understanding of the meaning comes from one of the differences and so it is selective. （运用理论型论据，即根据著名语言学家Saussure的观点，指出符号本身虽然具有任意性，但语义的生成则是建立在对不同语符的组合关系和聚合关系之上，这就使理解具有选择性。之后，作者用实例animals of the farm 进行论证，但论证力度不够。） After the units are picked out, they are organized into a text. Since signs are arbitrary, the meaning of the text should be indefinite. However, the innate laziness of human beings, as said by Saussure, makes it appear to be definite. This process, from arbitrariness to convention, is what we call the naturalization of meaning, or the fixation of meaning. Roland Barthes, a French thinker and semiologist, once proposed that meaning naturalization is determined by a group of authority, which is a small group; that is to say, it can be some experts on technology, or may be some anonymous group. In the fixation of meaning, the group authority selects its preferred meaning on the basis of its own ideology and makes it a consensus in its authoritative range. Therefore, meaning is constructed and naturalized. In the process of naturalization of meaning, metaphor and metonymy are commonly used, which will be formulated in the next section. (作者拟用递进法论及在生成意义时组合成文本并使该文本意义自然化的两种方式：隐喻和转喻。这段最后一句在语篇上起到承上启下的作用。) 2.2 Metaphor and metonymy 2.2.1 Metaphor Metaphor is such a mode in which we compare two things according to their similarities; for example, we may use the upper and lower space to refer to the social status of an individual. To construct meaning by using a metaphor, we need form between two things a relation that does not originally exist and is a choice relation. This is because metaphor is operated according to the associative ( paradigmatic ) relation, that is to say, by using a metaphor an object unknown to others is embedded into a new associative relation and the unknown object thus obtains some new meanings. For example, in the metaphor The ship is ploughing in the sea, the word sail, as an untold and unknown object, is embedded into the paradigm of the way of dividing up objects, and so it is coordinated with slice, unrip, saw, exscind, scissor, chop, unstick, etc. Through a certain imagination, the reader then transposes the general characteristics of the paradigm and the specific features of plough chosen from the paradigm and thus the unknown term sail is endowed with a new meaning. Here plough is selected from the paradigm and forms a relation with the ship and therefore, a new meaning of sail comes into being. （从认知语言学的角度阐释如何通过具有相似关系的隐喻生成的意义，并以实例为证。这一点还可以写得清楚、深入一点。） 2.2.2. Metonymy Metonymy, to put it simply，refers to the mode in which a certain part is used to substitute the whole; and it manifests how the meaning of a sign substitutes for that of another.（此句欠准确。） Which part can be used to substitute for the whole? This is a selective process. For example, on Oct. 27th, 1968, a peaceful anti-war in Vietnam demonstration was processed for five hours in London, and it ended still peacefully with only some small conflicts near the U. S. embassy and a few people injured. However, reports from British media went too far from the truth: they, with no exception, focused their reports on the conflicts happening near the U.S. embassy, and described a peaceful demonstration as a violent one. In this case, the media substituted the small conflicts for the whole demonstration, which is a metonymy; in that they transferred the meaning of the sign demonstration to conflict and so the meaning presented by conflict forms the meaning of demonstration. Obviously, this is a kind of choice. The media selected details to report the news for the purpose of the value of the news or maybe because of their own value system and social and cultural environment. But for whatever reasons, the selected information is still different from what the truth is. （文章试图从认知语言学的角度阐释如何通过具有相关关系的转喻生成意义，但此处所用事例型论据不甚典型，缺乏信服力。） The above analysis of the case formulates such a fact that metonymy bears a selective nature, and the signs in it should have relativity. Choice is made artificially but not arbitrarily: a sign should be selected in the scope of the other, that is, conflict should not be out of the range of the sign demonstration, and thus it is unworkable to substitute fashion for demonstration. 3. Contextual factors According to the previous analysis, understanding of a text, in itself, is a selective and dynamic process. Yet there are still some external elements that make the results of understanding vary greatly from one person to another or one culture to another, etc. In order to make sense of those factors, a core notion of context should be introduced. （理解的选择性还涉及另一方面的外部因素语境因素。） 3. 1 Definition of context In his article Meaning and Context, Zhang Zhigong makes it clear that context, in a narrow sense, refers to the actual linguistic context, for example, on what occasion the talk takes place, which directly affects the understanding of the meaning of a text. Besides, in a broad sense, time or society and its nature and features, and the situation of the individuals in communication, for example, educational background, life experience, language style and dialect, are also included in the realm of context. Generally, context can be divided into three kinds, namely, immediate linguistic context, social and cultural context, and individual context, each of which will be elaborated later in detail. （为便于展开下文，作者引用语言学家张之公关于语境的三说法：即时语境、社会文化语境和个人语境，然后“分而治之”。） 3.2 Immediate linguistic context 3.2. 1 Definition of immediate linguistic context Communication needs a place or an occasion. Either verbal communication or non-verbal communication always takes place under actual circumstances. So in order to understand the exact meaning of a text, the immediate linguistic context should be taken into consideration. （先定义什么是即时语境，指出这种语境涉及时间、地点、主题、发话人与听话人之间的关系等。） Immediate linguistic context is the specific communication situation, which includes time and place of communication, topic, degree of formality, the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. It is these factors that most directly influence our understanding of a text. 3.2.2 The impact on the understanding process In the course of communication, the hearer selects the meaning, which is in consistence with what the speaker wants to convey, from his repertoire of the meaning set of the text according to the context. For example, In a long-jump competition, Maling did a good job. The audience thought it amazing, saying, “他跳得多远!” (How far he jumped!) When one Of the audiences came back and talked about this, one of the hearers may ask, “他跳了多远?” (How far did he jump?) （接着，作者用两个（中文和英文）事例型论据论述了即时语境诸因素对理解选择的直接影响。） Here the word cluster “多远” in two contexts has different meanings. In the first one “他跳得多远!”, “多远” means very far, which forms an exclamation to express the audiences praise and amazement towards Maling. As for the second sentence“他跳了多远?”, the hearer wanted to know the exact meters Maling jumped, so the cluster “多远” means What is the distance between the starting point and the point that Maling jumped up to? The example shows that it is the different immediate linguistic contexts that give rise to the meaning differences of the same phrase. In our understanding of a text, we are always trying to combine our previous knowledge about the text and its meaning set with the immediate linguistic context and thus picking out the meaning which is most suitable to the specific circumstance. Another example, the simple sentence He is a good student may have at least four different interpretations as follows: a. He is a student who behaves well. b. He is a student who works well. c. He is a student who gets high marks. d. He is a student who shows a high level of ability. Here in order to get the exact meaning of the sentence, we should consider where and when the sentence is uttered. Two instances are given here. （为了增强“即时语境因素可以直接影响理解选择”的说服力，作者又对第2例作出两种不同语境的补充假设和进一步阐述。这种“步步深入”的论证方式是可取的。） a. Several teachers are correcting test papers. Having finished doing that, they talked about those who did a good job in the exam. One of the teachers pointed to the name of a student and said, He got the highest marks. He is really a good student. In this case, the teacher made the sentence while discussing the marks of the exam, which presupposes that the meaning of the word good is definitely getting high marks. So the sentence He is really a good student should be understood as He is a student who gets high marks. b. George is a student very popular with his teachers. One day, the head teacher was told that George beat someone when he was playing basketball. The teacher was surprised to hear that, and he said to other teachers, Its incredible! George is a good student. He always behaves himself! The teachers impression of George was that he couldnt have done that, and the sentence He is a good student here thus means He is a student who behaves well. As we see from the above examples, immediate linguistic context directly conditions our selection from a meaning set of a text and therefore our understanding of it. 3.3 Social and cultural context Social and cultural context refers to the historical background and a nations unique traditions and customs formed with historic and social development. The following formulations will focus on two aspects, i. e. history and a nations culture and their far-reaching impacts on our understanding of a text. （在定义什么是社会文化语境之后，文章从两个方面呈扇形展开: 历史因素和文化因素。) 3.3.1 Historical background The impacts that history has on meaning can be illustrated in the aspects of specialization, extension, amelioration, degeneration and transference of meaning. Consequently, our understanding of a specific word or text is also changing with the development of history. The word cab, which meant a horse-drawn carriage for hire in the 19th century, now means the same as the word taxi. Another example, John built a house in the north of Ottawa. We now may interpret it as John asked the construction company to dispatch an engineer corps to build a house for him in the north of Ottawa. But if it were in the 19th century, people would understand the sentence in this way: John built a house by himself in the north of Ottawa. It is the same case with the sentence He bought a car. It may be a symbol of his richness at the beginning of the 20th century, but it is now quite ordinary. (举例说明理解的选择性与历史变迁等因素有关。) 3.3.2 Cultural factors For a nation, its unique social and historic advancement develops its unique style and tradition. Thus people from different cultures may react variably to the same word or text. Muslims and Britishs understanding of the word pork can be quite different. Family may also raise different emotions for Japanese women and American women. Sea, mountain, valley, etc. could represent different significances, and color words like black, white and red have different symbolic meanings in different cultures. (从符号、语言和文化的关系，用实例论及理解的选择性与不同的文化因素也相关。但说得比较肤浅，所用例子较为俗套，缺乏新颖感。) Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining these symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. Culture influences language symbols and rules for using these symbols. To some extent, meaning is culturally determined. (这句话带有定论性，说得中肯。) Being a collective culture, the Chinese usually use yes or no to express respect for the feelings of others, for example, to politely refuse an offer three times before they accept it, while most North Americans learn to say yes and no as a means of expressing their individual views. It is because of different understandings of the word no that many Chinese may be left hungry at an American table. Another example is about the understanding of a message of greeting. According to Chinese cultural norms, a message of greeting is encoded into “吃了吗？”( Have you eaten?), but is decoded as an invitation to a meal in Western culture. 3.4 Individual context Individual context here means the educational background, life experience and dialect, etc. of an individual during interpersonal communication. The receptors understanding of a text is operated under such a circumstance thus is affected by the context. Firstly, the receptors educational background plays an important role in the understanding of t