科技沟通第1-18章大纲.doc

Chapter 13Laboratory ReportsTeaching ObjectivesOn completion of this Chapter, students should be able to:l identify the types of laboratory reports;l explain the communicative purposes of laboratory reports;l understand the language features of laboratory reports;Teaching Objectivesl get to know the structural features of laboratory reports;l learn the techniques for writing laboratory reports;l understand the principles for writing laboratory reports;l rules of practice for writing laboratory reports;Background & Lead-inl 实验报告，是在科学研究中描述、记录某一课题的实验过程和结果的报告。l 在学习和科研活动中，为了检验某种科学理论或假设，往往要进行实验。人们通过实验、观察、分析、综合、判断，如实地将实验过程和结果记录下来，经过整理而写成书面报告。Background & Lead-inl This chapter describes a general format for laboratory reports that you can adapt as needed. Laboratory reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering course and can count for as much as 25% of a course yet little time or attention is devoted to how to write them well. Worse yet, each professor wants something a little different.1. Definition of Laboratory Reportsl Laboratory reports document laboratory procedures and their results. l Laboratory reports may be one component of a research project or may demonstrate technical capability and compliance with contracts.Classification of Laboratory Reports l According to purpose there are l Academic laboratory reports l 学术实验报告l Industry laboratory test reports l 工业的实验报告l Page 82-83Classification of Laboratory ReportsGenre Features of Laboratory Reports l Communicative Purposes: l Document your findings l Communicate their significancel Present the results of research or testingLinguistic Features of laboratory Reportsl Objective and impersonall Specific and factuall Consistent and coherentl Clear and concisel Persuasive and convincingl Page 85Formal Laboratory Reportsl The Cover Material :l Title Page l Table of contentsFormal Laboratory Reportsl The Body of the Reportl Abstractl Introduction l Equipment and Componentsl Procedure usedl Results /Observationsl Analysis and Discussionl Summary/Conclusion Formal Laboratory ReportsInformal Laboratory Reports The name of the proceduresl A data sheetl Calculationsl See page 864. Techniques for Writing Laboratory Reportsl Title Page（标题页）：标题的提炼和制作要明确、简练，直接反映所研究的对象、范围、方向和问题。 l Title page needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab partners, and the date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words 4. Techniques for Writing Laboratory Reportsl The Abstract(摘要): 简明扼要说明实验目的意义,重要发现, 主要结论和理论方法。l The Abstract summarizes four essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report), key findings, significance and major conclusions. 4. Techniques for Writing Laboratory Reportsl The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology. l The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report. l The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words 4. Techniques for Writing Laboratory Reportsl The Introduction (简介)is more narrowly focused than the abstract. l It states the objective of the experiment and provides the reader with background to the experiment. State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences:Introductionl A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or formulas the reader needs to know. l Usually, an instructor does not want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension of the problem. Example: The purpose of this experiment was to identify the specific element in a metal powder sample by determining its crystal structure and atomic radius. l Quick Introduction Reference l Must Have: 1. Purpose of the experiment 2. Important background and/or theory l May include: 1. Description of specialized equipment 2. Justification of experiments importancel If the amount of introductory material seems to be a lot, consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background.l Note on verb tenseEquipment and Apparatus 实验仪器和装置l When the laboratory equipment is commonly used by laboratories, or consists of simple components such as strain gauges应变仪 and thermometers, you many include, without description, a list of equipment. l This is typical for student laboratory reports. Laboratory Procedure or Process (实验程序或过程)l Laboratory procedures use the imperative voice and include a step-by-step format with step numbers. l Alternatively, process descriptions are the technical descriptions of laboratory procedures and may be stated in the present or past tense. Laboratory Procedure l Confusing: Press the STOP button when the load drops abruptly. This may prompt the operator to press the STOP button before there is an abrupt drop in the load.l Clear: When the load drops abruptly, press the STOP button.l A sample procedure follows.Process Descriptionl The process description is either an explanation or history of the procedure. The present tense is used for an explanation, and, alternatively, the past tense is used for a history. l SampleData and Calculations数据和计算l The data are the numerical quantities determined from reading the instruments during the experiment. l These are usually recorded on data sheets-tables with the nomenclature 命名法of the controlled and measured parameters 规范、参数of the experiment, respectively, as the row and column headings.Results(实验效果)l Results are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form.Discussion (探讨) l Discussion is the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. l Explain. Analyze. Interpret. l This part of the lab focuses on a question of understanding What is the significance or meaning of the results?”Discussionl Analyze experimental error. Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment? If an experiment was within the tolerances, you can still account for the difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental design explain how the design might be improved. Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues. Often undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws. Usually you will have discussed these in the introduction. In this section move from the results to the theory. How well has the theory been illustrated? Discussionl Relate results to your experimental objective (s). If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice格子框架、斜条结构 parameter and its atomic structure, youd better know the metal and its attributes. l Compare your results to similar investigations. In some cases, it is legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your answer, but to look for any anomalies异常现象 between the groups and discuss those. l Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design. Conclusion (结论):l Conclusion can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. l Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab.References (参考文献):l References (参考文献): 这是指在实验报告中参考和引用别人的材料和论述。应注明出处、作者、文献标题、书名或刊名、卷期、页码，出版及日期等。l References include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done.Sample Student Laboratory Report l Sample Student Laboratory Report Informal Test ReportsPrinciples of Writing Laboratory Reportsl Be concise in your choice of words. l State your ideas as directly as possible. l Write to express, not to impress. l Be positive in your information. l Use appropriate style and tone. l Avoid abbreviations unless the word is commonly abbreviated. Principles of Writing Laboratory Reportsl Avoid unintentional repetition. l Use of general rather than specific words: l Word use for precisionl Use strong conjunctions. l Remove overly descriptive words. Definition of Note-taking Note-taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient (短暂的）source, such as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture. The importance of taking notes w Extend your attention span.When reading or listening, your mind may tend to wander off.Taking notes helps keep you focused on your subject area and to the task at hand. w Remember what you have heard or read.Rather than being a passive listener or reader, note taking makes you an active learner. Techniques for Taking NotesThe Cornell Method Page Layout of the Outline Method Extrasensory perception(超感官知觉） 1. definition: means of perceiving 2. three kinds:w a. telepathy: sending messagesw b. clairvoyance: forecasting the futurew c. psychokinesis: perceiving events w external to situationw 3. current statusw a. no current research to support or w refutew b. few psychologists say impossiblew Time People Affair Consequence w Before the Burglary Watergate- w summer of 1972 Nixon in Watergate political scandalw Mel didnt repr. life as was; e.g., lang. of Ahab, etc. not of real life.w Melville did not try to represent life as it really was. The language of Ahab, Starbuck, and Ishmael, for instance, was not that of real life. Business CommunicationChapter 6 SummarySummary is a bridge between reading and writing Chapter Outlinew Task：Write a summary for the following paragraph Beautiful mountains like Tai Mountain, Lu Mountain, and Yellow Mountain, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on those mountains and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach to many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago. Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, once visited by only a few people, are today accessible to many, thanks to better wages, paid holidays, new hotels and better transportation services. One very effective way of studying material is to write down the significant points, the important facts.Definition of a Summary A summary is a short version of a longer text, and it gives only the main points. A summary is a brief restatement of the essential thought of a longer composition. The summary as a condensation is the digest of the main points in an original work. 概要(summary)是一种对原始文献（或文章）的基本内容进行浓缩的语义连贯的短文。w The summary omits introductory matter, details, examples, illustrationseverything except the major ideas and facts.Classification of Summariesw Descriptive Summary 描述型概要w Informative Summary 信息型概要w Evaluative Summary 评价型概要Descriptive Summary 描述型概要w A descriptive summary is often referred to as a descriptive abstract.w In the descriptive summary, you inject no personal feelings or thoughts, presenting the main points of the material objectively.w See Sample6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4Informative Summary 信息型概要w The informative summary tells what is in the work in a paragraph to several pages, depending on the length of the original. w Present the main points of the material objectively. w The original work is condensed in two ways: the material is briefly rephrased or nonessential matter is cut out. w See Sample 6-5Evaluative Summary 评价型概要w A summary may comment on accuracy, completeness, and usefulness of a piece of writing. w Include your own reactions, your thoughts and feelings, along with a report on the main facts in the material. w It has no specific length. Generally the summary is no longer than 10 percent of the original. w See Sample 6-6What kind of summary is it?Computer Crime The author addresses the criminology of computer crimewhy computers are chosen as targets for criminal purposes and how to secure them against such unlawful uses. The strengths and weaknesses of existing prosecutorial and investigatory machinery are explored. Federal and state laws governing computer crime reanalyzed. The evidentiary problems in prosecuting and convicting computer criminals and current cases are examined.Key: It is a descriptive summary (Summary of a Book Review). Communicative Purposes of Summaries w The purposes of summaries is to inform, to present, the principal facts and conclusions given in the original work. w Giving summaries is part of the work in the business community, such as reports, articles, speeches, or discussions being condensed for a superior too busy to read or hear the original. w 概要的交际目的是让读者尽快了解文章的主要内容。概要写作 心得感想Objective and Faithful内容客观，忠实原文 When one writes a summary, one should not interpret or comment. All one has to do is to give the gist of the authors exact and essential meaning. 概要是使用读者自己的语言对一篇较长文章的基本内容加以总结，不是对原文进行释义，或变换措辞，而是在原文内容基础上的提炼。 概要中所有内容要客观，要忠实原文，既不能漏掉基本内容，也不要随意增加内容。 The summary omits introductory matter, details, examples, illustrationseverything except the major ideas and facts. It reproduces the theme of the original with as few words as possible. 概要写作要求在正确理解文章的基础上，用精炼的词句高度浓缩文章的主要内容和观点，不应包含细节、例证以及资料性、阐述性的内容。Rewrite the following paragraph in a sentence:She brought home several Chinese and English novels, a few copies of Time and Newsweek and some textbooks. She intended to read all of them during the winter vocation. She brought home a lot of books to read during the vocation. The length of a summary varies according to its purpose; however, it should generally be no more than one-third or one-fourth the length of the original. 严格遵守篇幅的限制，通常为原文篇幅的1/3或1/4。w Task：Identify the topic sentence of each of the following paragraphs There are several reasons why Toby likes his new job. To begin with, he now has more free time. He goes to work later in the morning and gets home earlier in the evening. Furthermore, he now makes more money. His weekly pay check has increased from $75 to $130. Above all, he now has a better chance for advancement. The skills he is learning will help him to qualify for a much higher-paying position. w 例文主要说明Toby喜欢新工作的原因，本段的主题句应该是第一句：“There are several reasons why Toby likes his new job”。主题句陈述的中心是“为什么”的问题。How can you protect yourself from the danger of lightning? For one thing, when you are at home, keep away from the stove, fireplace, and windows. For another, dont take a bath or a shower during a storm, as water carries electricity easily. Third, if you are outdoors, get into a building or car, if possible. Fourth, stay off hilltop and away from any tree or tower that stands by itself. Fifth, if you cant get away quickly from a beach, a field, or other open place, lie down until the storm moves away. w 例文的主要内容是告诉人们如何才能避免受自然现象雷电的打击，该段的主题句是：“How can you protect yourself from the danger of lightening？”。 该主题句是以疑问句的形式表达肯定的意思，即“There are several ways of protecting yourself from the danger of lightening.”。 Procedures for Writing a Summary w Understand the text;w Underline the sentences that are important for the summary;w Divide the text into paragraphs;w Find headings for the different paragraphs;w Write down key-words (not more than 20) which are important for the summary;w Write the summary in your own words using conjunctions, relative clauses or participle constructions;w Reread the original work; then check the summary for accuracy of fact and emphasis.Summary Writing1仔细阅读原文，直到完全读懂为止。2写下原文的中心思想。3每个摘要都应该有标题。Sales promotionsThe effects of promotional efforts on the last three months salesmicro computers Report on the value of micro computers in the accounts department recent correspondence Summary of correspondence with Worldwide Dealers Company within the last 6 weeksSummary Writing4写下原文中其他的思想和要点。在这样做的时候，1）必要的（essential）; 2）非必要但相关的（relevant but not essential）; 3）不相关的（irrelevant）。在做摘要的时候，必须包括要点。5写初稿。初稿应该包括所有要点。在这个阶段你要决定你的摘要大致该多长。找出下面段落中实质性信息和非实质性信息。 One method of conducting a market survey is known as “direct mail shot”. In other words, it is sending your companys advertisements or product information directly to the customers residence.w Essential: First sentence (实质信息：第一句)w Inessential: Second sentence (非实质信息：第二句)Summary Writing6修改初稿。你可以去除多余的字句，调整句子顺序。7仔细检查一遍拼写和语法，并核对一下，要点是否都包括了。检查概要中确切字数、拼写、语法和标点符号。 Problems and Solutionsw A summary must agree with the original material in two ways: in the presentation of factual information and in the emphasis given the information. w Wood posts can be expected to last at least 30 years if they have been pressure treated and handled properly. w Pressure-treated and properly handled wood posts last at least 30 years. w Do not misrepresent the emphasis placed on information in the original material. w Do not overemphasize or underemphasize the information. w Do not emphasize a minor point in the original report. Do the task on page 63 Kate suggested to Paul that he should eat less salt. She thought that eating too much salt would do hard to Pauls health and that it could reduce the real tastes of food. But Paul disagreed. He said that food without salt would be tasteless. Summary Writing for Narrative and Exposition（记叙文和说明文的概要写作）Temporary Help- A Specialist Servicew Despite record unemployment, there are simply not enough adequately skilled secretaries in Manchester to cope with projected office needs in the next few years. Secretarial work is one of the few areas of the economy that has expanded since 1960 r