chapter_4_from_word_to_text.ppt

ChapterFour FromWordtoText wordphraseclausesentencetext Theoriginoftheword syntax syntaxsyntaxtogethertoarrangearrangementThedefinitionofSYNTAX therulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentences theformationofsentences 句子的组成或句子的构造 Howtoarrangewordsintophrase clauseorsentence theconditionofarrangment syntacticrelations theunitsofthearrangment grammaticalConstructionandConstituents Phrase ClauseandSentence SyntacticFunction Howtoformtext Recursiveness sentenceconnection cohension SyntacticRelations 句法关系 GrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituents 语法结构与成分 SyntacticFunction 句法功能 Category 范畴 Phrase ClauseandSentenceRecursiveness 递归性 BeyondtheSentence SyntacticRelations Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds namely positionalrelation 位置关系 relationofsubstitutability 可替代关系 and relationofco occurrence 同现关系 PositionalRelation POSITIONALRELATION orWORDORDER referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguageungrammatical nonsensicalsequencesor grammaticallywell formedbutoppositemeanings sentences Other related namesSYNTAGMATICRELATIONS组合关系HORIZONALRELATIONSCHAINRELATIONS Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways wordorder genetic 类 属 andarea l classifications toclassifylanguagesintheworld InthewayofclassificationofWordOrder therearetotallysixpossibletypesoflanguage theyare SVO VSO SOV OVS OSV andVOS RelationofSubstitutability Firstly theRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure Secondly itreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset eg The smiles OthernamesPARADIGMATICrelation聚合关系VERTICALrelationsCHOICErelationsASSOCIATIVErelation ADD syntagmatic paradigmaticSyntagmaticrelation1 betweenoneitemandothersinasequence2 betweenelementswhichareallpresentIftheweatherisnice we llgoout Therearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet Iftheweatherisnice we llgoout Ifweisnice theweatherwillgoout Iftheweatheriscry we llgoout Theparadigmatic associative relation1 betweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure2 betweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent The issmiling She Tomthebook Wordsinaparadigmaticrelation 1 becomparableonlyintermsofsyntax2 havethesamesyntacticfeatures3 notreplaceablewitheachothersemantically4 semanticfactorsarenottakeintoconsideration RelationofCo occurrence CO OCCURRENCEwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit orrequire theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetoforclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence e g Anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective s andfollowedbyaverbalphrase Thusrelationofco occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations partlytoparadigmaticrelations GrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituents grammaticalconstruction immediateconstituents 直接成分 endocentricandexocentricconstruction 向心结构和离心结构 coordinationandsubordination 并列与从属 GrammaticalConstruction GRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCT anysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains Onthelevelofsyntax wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalandinternalproperties Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole thatistosay anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome Forinstance thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction s make up withthetermssuchassubject predicate noun etc ImmediateConstituent Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits Immediateconstituents1 constituentsimmediatelybelowthelevelofaconstruction2 maybeasentence orawordgroupPoorJohnranaway PoorJohnranaway poorJohnranaway Immediateconstituentanalysis theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents wordgroups orphrases whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached ICanalysismaybecarriedoutwithbrackets Poor John ran away Itmayalsobemoreeasilyshownwithtreediagrams PoorJohnranaway TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthewayofNODES 节点 iscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis A mothernode B daughternode C daughternode B Caredaughtersofthesamemother sotheyarereferredasSisternodes Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes eg N nounA adjective VPDetAdvNPAPVPPPConjS Themanhitaball SNPVPDetNVNPthemanhitDetNaball Themanhitaball TheadvantageofICanalysis ThroughICanalysis theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly andambiguities ifany willberevealed Leavethebookontheshelf LeavethebookontheshelfLeavethebookontheshelf EndocentricandExocentricConstruction Thesyntacticconstructionsanalyzedareoftwotypes endocentricandexocentricconstructions dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents Endocentric 向心结构 ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinableCENTERorHEAD Usuallynounphrases verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead AnEndocentricconstruction Ashortexpressionbecomeslongerbytheadditionofamodifier andthetwoexpressionsaresyntacticallythesame Theyaresubstitutableforeachother Theshortexpressionisthecentreorheadofthelongerexpression anendocentricconstructionaconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents whichservesasthecentreorheadofthewhole Anendocentricconstruction aheadedconstruction Typicalendocentricconstructions nounphrases thethreesmallchildren verbphrases willhavebeenleaving adjectivephrases reallyverylate Thehead 1 thelastconstituent or2 atthebeginningthebookontheshelf themanaboutwhomI vebeentalking walkedawayimmediately hotbeyondendurance afraidofthetalk TwosubtypesofEndocentricconstructions COORDINATEconstructions 并列结构 SUBORDINATEconstructions 主从结构 Coordinateconstruction 1 therearemorethanonehead2 allarecapableofservingastheheadSubordinateconstructions thereisonlyonehead withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent Exocentric 离心结构 EXOCENTRICconstructionisjusttheoppositeofendocentricconstruction Itreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Center or Head insidethegroup Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence prepositionalphrase predicate verb object construction andconnective be complement construction Theexocentricconstruction1 aconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents 2 Thereisnonoticeablecentre orhead init eg ontheshelf Shelikesdancing Thewholeconstructionhasadifferentgrammaticalfunctionfromeitherofitsconstituents Theycannotsubstituteforeachother CoordinationandSubordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents coordinationandsubordination Coordination COORDINATIONacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand butandor Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally Thestructure CoordinateofSs isusuallyconsideredtobedoublyheaded sincebothoftheconjoinedelementsfunctionasheadsofthelargerunit Thatis inacoordinatesentence two ormore Sconstituentsoccurasdaughtersandco headsofahigherS Onepropertycoordinationrevealsisthatthereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction Thus wecanformstructuresinwhichthesubjectNPcontainsmanysmallerNPspriortotheunderlinedconjunctionandoneafterit Therefore coordinationoccupiesitsownplaceinthecreativityoflanguage recursiveness Subordination SUBORDINATIONreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers Certainly clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents thethreebasictypesofsubordinateclausesare complementclauses adjunct oradverbial clauses andrelativeclauses Sinceallclausescontainanounphrasesubjectandfiniteverbphrasepredicate theirnounphraseandverbphrasescanbeexpanded rearrangedandconjoined inthissense subordination aswellascoordination cantakepartintherecursivenessoflanguageinseveralways SyntacticFunction TheSYNTACTICFUNCTIONshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects objects predicators modifiers complements etc Subject ProblemofdefiningSUBJECT 1 Insomelanguages SUBJECTreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase 2 InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobethedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbythedoer 3 Butthatisnottrueforthesubjectinpassivevoice Todealwiththismatter twoterms grammaticalsubject and logicalsubject areused Sincethecoreobjectnounsitsintheslotbeforetheverbinthepassive itiscalledtheGRAMMATICALSUBJECT fortheoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies thecoresubject nowtheobjectofapreposition iscalledtheLOGICALSUBJECT sincesemanticallythecoresubjectstilldoeswhatasubjectnormallydoes itperformsanaction 4 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout Again thisdefinitionseemstoworkformanysentences butfailsinothers ItseemsthatwecanNOTreliablyidentifythesubjectofasentencewitheithertheagent 施事 orthetopic Subjectshouldbediscussedspecifically Thecharacteristics properties ofsubjectsinEnglish 1 Wordorder subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinstatement 2 Pro form thefirstandthethirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject Thisformisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions 3 Agreementwithverb inthesimplepresenttense an sisaddedtotheverbwhenthethirdpersonsubjectissingular 4 Contentquestions ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged Butwhenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject Ifthebasicsentencedoesnotcontainanyauxiliaryverb wemustinsertdidordoimmediatelyafterthequestion 5 Tagquestion atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject andnevertoanyotherelementsinthesentence Predicate PREDICATEreferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituents 强制性成分 otherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether Itusuallyexpressesactions processes andstatesthatrelatetothesubject Aspredicateincludesconstituentssuchasverb object complement etc peoplefinditillogicaltouseaclass term namely theverb ingrammaticalanalysisofafunctionalnature ThewordPREDICATOR 谓语词 谓词 issuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate Object OBJECTisalsoatermhardtodefine 1 Sincetraditionallysubjectcanbedefinedasthedoerofanaction objectmayrefertothe receiver or goal ofanaction anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDIRECTOBJECTandINDIRECTOBJECT 2 Insomeinflectinglanguages objectismarkedbycaselabels theaccusativecase 宾格 forindirectobject andthedativecase 与格 forindirectobject 3 InEnglish object isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder aftertheverbandpreposition andbyinflections ofpronouns 4 Modernlinguists eg Chomsky halliday suggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation Butthatisnotalwaystrue Forexample HechangedtrainsatFengtai TheRelationbetweenClassesandFunctions Classesandfunctionsdetermineeachother butnotinanyone to onerelation Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions Forexample anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject object modifier adverbialandcomplementofasentence Similarly afunctioncanbefulfilledbyseveralclasses Forinstance thesubjectofasentencecanberealizedbyanoun numeral infinitive etc Category ThetermCATEGORYinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense eg noun verb subject predicate verbphrases etc Morespecifically itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits thecategoriesofthenoun forexample includenumber gender case andcountability andoftheverb forexample tense aspect voice etc Thegrammaticalcategoriesinthesecondsensewillbediscussedinthissection NumberNUMBERisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular dual plural etc InEnglish numberismainlyobservedinnouns andthereareonlytwoforms singularandplural Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs Inotherlanguages forexample French themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles GenderGENDERdisplayssuchcontrastsas masculine feminine neuter animate inanimate etc fortheanalysisofwordclasses Whenworditemsreferstothesexofreal wordentities wearetalkingaboutnaturalgender Theoppositeisgrammaticalgender Thoughthereisastatisticalcorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases forinstanceinLatin fire ismasculine while flame isfeminine Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns andtheyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype InFrench genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles andsometimes gendercanchangelexicalmeaning CaseThecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence InLatingrammar casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword andaregiventheterms accusative 宾格 nominative 主格 dative 与格 etc InEnglish CASEisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun anditisrealizedinthreechannels inflection followingapreposition wordorder AgreementAGREEMENT orCONCORD maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanother shallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory orcategories Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric 前指 aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubject Thefeaturesoftheheadnounwhichmaybereflectedintheagreeingdependentformsare gender number andcase Agreementbetweengenderandnumbershouldbeshowninnoun adjectiverelationinFrench Phrase ClauseandSentence PhrasePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword andlackingthesubject predicatestructuretypicalofclauses PhraseTraditionally itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy positionedbetweenclauseandword Therefore first aphrasemustbeagroupofwordswhichformaconstituent Second aphraseisloweronthegrammaticalhierarchythanclauses Moreprecisely simpleclausesmay andusuallydo containphrases butsimplephrasedonot ingeneral containclauses PhraseHowever thereisatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenWORDGROUPandPHRASE Awordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged Thuswehavenominalgroup verbalgroup adverbialgroup conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup rightbehindaprepositionalgroupbehindthedooraprepositionalphrase ClauseAconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate ifitisincludedinalargersentence isaCALUSE ClausecanalsobeclassifiedintoFINITEandNON FINITEclauses thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase participialphrase andgerundialphrase SentenceTraditionally SENTENCEistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought Bloomfield 1935 definedthesentenceas onenotincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform Sentencesmaybeclassifiedalongtheinterestingdimensionsofstructureandfunction Thetraditionalapproachpresentsabinarydivisionintermsofstructureasfollows simpleSentencecomplexnon simplecompound Thefunctionalapproachgivesaframeworklikethis yes nointerrogativeindicativewh declarativeSentencejussive 弱祈使 imperativeoptative 祈愿句 Somelinguistsarenowinterestedinthecommunicativefunctionofutterancesandlabelvarioussentencesas statement question command request confirmation etc Basedonwordclasses Bolinger 1969 reportsfivebasicsentencetypes a nominal intransitiveverbaleg Motherfell b nominal copula complementeg Motherisyoung c nominal transitiveverbal nominaleg MotherlovesDad d nominal transitiveverbal nominal nominaleg MotherfedDadbreakfast e There existential nominaleg Thereistime Quirketal 1972 introducessevensentencetypesaccordingtothegrammaticalfunctionsoftheconstituentsinvolvedinasentence a SVCeg Maryiskind Maryisanurse b SVAeg Maryishere Maryisinthehouse c SVeg Thechildislaughing d SVOeg Somebodycaughttheball e SVOCeg Wehaveprovedhimwrong afool f SVOAeg Iputtheplateonthetable g SVOOeg Shegivesmeexpensivepresents Recursiveness Thoughitmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory RECURSIVENESShasbecomeanumbrellaterm underwhichmaybebroughttogetherseveralimportantlinguisticphenomenasuch