Chapter+4+From+Word+to+Text(新版）.ppt

1 ChapterFourFromWordtoText 2 Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures 句法学研究组词成句的规则 研究句子内部组成成分间的关系 3 Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco occurrence Syntacticrelations 句法关系 4 1 1RelationsofPosition 位置关系 Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject 5 Positionalrelation orWORDORDER referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall Forexample 6 Theboykickedtheball Boytheballkickedthe TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher 7 PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations 横组合关系 observedbyF deSaussure TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations 8 Wordorderisoneofthebasicwaystoclassifylanguagesintheworld SVO VSO SOV OVS OSV andVOS EnglishbelongstoSVOtype thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder 9 1 2RelationofSubstitutability 替换关系 TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure The smiles manboygirl 10 Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset strongmanThetallestboysmiles prettygirlyesterday Hewenttherelastweek thedaybefore 11 ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure andParadigmaticRelations 纵聚合关系 byHjemslev 叶尔姆斯列夫 Tomakeitmoreunderstandable theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations 12 1 3RelationofCo occurrence 同现关系 纵横关系 Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclassesmaypermit orrequire theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence Forinstance anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective s andfollowedbyaverbalphrase 13 Relationsofco occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations partlytoparadigmaticrelations 14 2 Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents 2 1GrammaticalConstructionGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION 语法结构体 orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains 15 Onthelevelofsyntax wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole thatistosay anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome Forinstance thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively 16 16 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 17 17 Inthecontextofdiscourse textanalysis constructionreferstoatokenofaconstructionaltype ThesentenceThegirlisgigglingisrecognisedas Subject Predicate type butitisrealizedinastringThe girl is giggling Itistheconstructioninthissensethatcanbeanalysedintoconstituents 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 18 2 2ImmediateConstituents 直接成分 Constituent 成分 isapartofalargerlinguisticunit Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction thegirl NP atetheapple VP thegirlatetheapple S 19 19 Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits Iftwoconstituents inthecaseoftheexampleabove B thegirl andC atetheapple arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA S hereasentence thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 20 20 A Sentence BCThegirlatetheapple 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 21 21 ThistreecontainsthreeNodes Thetop mostnode A isthemotherofthetwolowernodes BandC BandCaredaughtersofthesamemother andsowerefertothemassisternodes ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC occurringinthatorder 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 22 22 TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis 直接成分分析法 theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents wordgroups phrases whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 23 23 Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit e g aphraseorsentence syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes themostcommonofthesearelistedinthefollowing 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 24 24 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 25 ImmediateConstituentAnalysis ICAnalysis Thegirlatetheapple 26 26 Treediagram SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 27 27 Bracketing Incontrasttotreediagram BRACKETINGisnotsocommon butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit The girl ate the apple The girl ate the apple 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 28 AdvantagesofICAnalysis TodemonstratetheinternalstructureofasentenceclearlyTorevealtheambiguitiesLeavethebookontheshelf 29 LeavethebookontheshelfLeavethebookontheshelf 30 2 3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions 向心结构和离心结构 Thesyntacticconstructionsanalysedareoftwomaintypes endocentricandexocentricconstructions dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents 31 31 ENDOCENTRICconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD 其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分 单个词或词组 相同或相似 这个词组是整体的核心或中心 因此向心结构也叫做中心结构 Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases thethreesmallchildren verbphrases willhavebeenleaving adjectivephrases reallyverylate 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 32 33 Theheadisnotnecessarilythelastconstituent Itmayoccuratthebeginning thebookontheshelfthemanaboutwhomI vebeentalkingwalkedawayimmediatelyhotbeyondenduranceafraidofthetalk 34 EXOCENTRICconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Centre or Head insidethegroup usuallyincludingthebasicsentence theprepositionalphrase thepredicate verb object construction andtheconnective be complement construction 35 Theboysmiled Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole Hehidbehindthedoor Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial Hekickedtheball Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb objectsequence Johnseemedangry Afterdivision theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists 36 朱德熙在 语法答问 中指出 布龙姆菲尔德 L Bloomfield 把句法结构分成两类 至少有一个直接成分跟整体的语法功能相同的结构叫 向心结构 向心结构里跟整体的功能相同的直接成分是这个向心结构的核心 head 所有的直接成分都跟整体的语法功能不同的结构叫离心结构 L Bloomfield Language 194 195页 例如偏正结构 包括定语加中心语的名词性偏正结构和状语加中心语的谓词性偏正结构 的语法功能跟它的后一个直接成分 中心语 相同 述宾结构和述补结构的语法功能都跟它的前一个直接成分 述语 相同 所以都是向心结构 主谓结构的语法功能跟它的两个直接成分 主语和谓语 都不一样 所以是离心结构 所有由虚词组成的句法结构如介词结构 的 字结构等等也都是离心结构 联合结构的语法功能跟它的每一项组成成分都相同 是一种多核心的向心结构 布龙姆菲尔德管它叫并列式向心结构 co ordinativeendocentricconstruction 37 布氏向心 离心结构理论的一些问题 1布氏的理论本身并不是完美无缺的 这一点布氏本人已经有所认识 并非所有的向心结构其整体功能都与中心语或核心完全一致 因此 向心 离心 结构理论即使就英语来说也不是一种能够覆盖所有合成短语的分析模式 2可以这样理解向心 离心结构理论 在一个AB结构体中 如果AB的整体功能和其中的某个成分一致 那AB就是向心结构 否则为离心结构 跟整体功能一致的成分就是结构核心 这个理解在汉语中碰到了麻烦 雷锋精神 成为双核心的向心结构 这本书的出版 中 出版 变成了结构核心 如果从结构上来考虑 所有的结构都是向心结构 如果从功能上来考虑就有两种情况 一种是结构核心和整体功能一致的结构 另一种是结构核心和整体功能不一致的结构 主谓短语 动宾短语在结构上都是向心的 但是在功能上则不是向心的 至于叫他什么 那就无所谓了 38 2 4CoordinationandSubordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents Coordinationsubordination 39 Coordination并列结构 CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand butandor Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally 40 CoordinationofNPs NPthelady or NPthetiger CoordinationofVPs VPgotothelibrary and VPreadabook CoordinationofPPs PPdownthestairs and PPoutthedoor CoordinationofAPs APquiteexpensive and APverybeautiful CoordinationofSs SJohnlovesMary and SMarylovesJohntoo 41 Inacoordinatesentence two ormore Sconstituentsoccurasdaughtersandco headsofahigherS Onepropertycoordinationrevealsisthatthereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction NPAman awoman aboy acatandadog gotintothecar Therefore coordinationoccupiesitsownplaceinthecreativityoflanguage i e recursiveness 42 Subordination从属结构 Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers 43 twodogsHead Mybrother candrink wine HeadSwimminginthelake isfun Head Thepepperwas hotbeyondendurance Head 44 Subordinateclauses Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses complementclausesadjunct oradverbial clausesrelativeclauses 45 Johnbelieves thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman complementclause Elizabethopenedherpresents beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner adverbialclause Thewoman thatIlove ismovingtothesouth relativeclause 46 3 SyntacticFunction句法功能 Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects objects predicators modifiers complements etc 47 3 1Subject Insomelanguages subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples paterfiliumamat thefatherlovestheson patrumfiliusamat thesonlovesthefather 48 InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent orthedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences MaryslappedJohn AdogbitBill 49 butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples Johnwasbittenbyadog Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice wehavetwootherterms grammaticalsubject John and logicalsubject adog 50 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout i e topic Again thisseemstoworkformanysentences suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow butfailsinothers suchas Jackisprettyreliable but BillIdon ttrust AsforBill Iwouldn ttakehispromisesveryseriously 51 Allthreesentencesseemtobe about Bill thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave WordorderPro formsAgreementwithverbContentquestionsTagquestions 52 Wordorder词序 Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement Sallycollectsstamps CollectsSallystamps 53 Pro forms ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions Helovesme Ilovehim Wethrewstonesatthem Theythrewstonesatus 54 Agreementwiththeverb Inthesimplepresenttense an sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb Sheangershim Theyangerhim Sheangersthem 55 Contentquestions Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword whoorwhat therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged asinJohnstoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishCouncil WhostoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishcouncil 56 WhatwouldJohnsteal ifhehadthechance WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil WheredidJohnstealtheQueen spicturefrom Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject 57 Tagquestion Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence JohnlovesMary doesn the MarylovesJohn doesn tshe JohnlovesMary doesn tshe 58 3 2Predicate Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether Itusuallyexpressesactions processes andstatesthatrefertothesubject Theboyisrunning process Peterbroketheglass action Janemustbemad state Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate 59 3 3Object Traditionally objectmayrefertothe receiver or goal ofanaction anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject Motherboughtadoll Mothergavemysisteradoll IODO 60 Insomeinflectinglanguages objectismarkedbycaselabels theaccusativecase 受格 fordirectobject andthedativecase 与格 forindirectobject InEnglish object isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder aftertheverbandpreposition andbyinflections ofpro nouns Mothergaveadolltomysister Johnkickedme 61 Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation Johnbroketheglass TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn PetersawJane JanewasseenbyPeter Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice Hediedlastweek Thematchlastedthreehours HechangedtrainsatManchester TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester 62 62 3 4TheRelationbetweenClassesandFunctions Classesandfunctionsdetermineeachother butnotinanyone to onerelation Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions Forinstance anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject object modi fier adverbialandcomplementofasentence Afunctioncanalsobefulfilledbyseveralclasses Forinstance thesubjectofasentencecanberealizedbyanoun pronoun numeral infinitive etc 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 63 4 Category范畴 Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits Categoriesofthenoun number gender caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb tense aspect voice 64 4 1Number数 Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular dual plural 单数 双数 复数 etc InEnglish numberismainlyobservedinnouns andthereareonlytwoforms singularandplural suchasdog dogs Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs suchasHelaughs Theylaugh thisman thesemen 65 Inotherlanguages forexample French themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles lechevalroyal theroyalhorse leschevauxroyaux theroyalhorses 66 4 2Gender性 Suchcontrastsas masculine feminine neuter animate inanimate etc fortheanalysisofwordclasses Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases Forinstance inLatin ignis fire ismasculine whileflamma flame isfeminine 67 Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns and theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype he she itprince princessauthor authoress 68 InFrench genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles beaucadeau finegift bellemaison finehouse Lecadeauestbeau Thegiftisgood Lamaisonestbelle Thehouseisbeautiful 69 Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell forexample inFrench lepoele thestove lapoele thefryingpan lependule thependulum lapendule theclock 70 4 3Case格 Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence InLatingrammar casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword andaregiventheterms accusative nominative dative etc TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction 71 InEnglish caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun anditisrealizedinthreechannels inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher teacher swith withamanJohnkickedPeter PeterkickedJohn 72 汉语的格 从Chomsky的 格理论 看汉语的 格 刘道英青海民族学院学报 社会科学版 2000年02期在传统语法研究中 由于汉语是分析性语言 名词没有 格 这似乎已成定论 本文试就美国语言学家Chomsky的普遍语法 管约论 简称GB 中的 格理论 Casetheory 对汉语名词的格进行分析 证实汉语名词有自己的格位形式标识 介词和句法位置 词序 有自己的格位类型 也证明了 格理论 同样适用于缺少形态变化的汉语 它具有普遍性 关键词 Chomsky格理论汉语论旨论元格位空语类 73 4 4Agreement一致关系 Agreement orconcord maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory orcategories 74 Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric 照应的 aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent 先行语 Whoseisthispen Oh it stheoneIlost oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin 75 Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs Thismanruns Thebirdflies Thesemenrun Thesebirdsfly 76 Sentence句子Clause分句 小句Phrase短语Word词 5 Phrase ClauseandSentence 77 5 1PhrasePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword andlackingthesubject predicatestructuretypicalofclauses Traditionally itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy positionedbetweenclauseandword 78 Therefore 1 aphrasemustbeagroupofwordswhichformaconstituent 2 aphraseisloweronthegrammaticalhierarchythanclauses Moreprecisely simpleclausesmay andusuallydo containphrases butsimplephrasesdonot ingeneral containclauses 79 thethreetallestgirls nominalphrase hasbeendoing verbalphrase extremelydifficult adjectivalphrase tothedoor prepositionalphrase veryfast adverbialphrase 80 80 DistinctionbetweenWORDGROUPandPHRASE Awordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged Thuswehavenominalgroup verbalgroup adverbialgroup conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup e g rightbehind allalong Tothedoor isstillacceptedasaprepositionalphrasewhichconsistsofaprepositionplusanominalgroup andis consequently nolongerapreposition 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 81 81 5 2Clause Aconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate ifitisincludedinalargersentence isaCLAUSE ClausecanalsobeclassifiedintoFINITEandNON FINITEclauses thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase participialphrase andgerundialphrase 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 82 Afiniteclause 限定性分句 hasafiniteverb Afiniteverbhastense E g Irundaily Anon finiteclause 非限定性分句 hasaverbwithouttense E g torundaily 83 84 84 5 3Sentence Bloomfield 1935 definedthesentenceasone notincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform Sentencesmaybeclassifiedalongtheintersectingdimensionsofstructureandfunction 2020 3 14 LINGUISTICS 85 Sentence traditionalapproach simpleSentencecomplex复合句non