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Chapter6 THESEVENTEENTHCENTURY TheAgeofScienceandGovernment Chapter6TheSeventeenthCenture IntroductionPart1Historicalbackground religion trade governancePart2NewdirectioninthoughtPart3SciencePart4TheartsandliteratureConclusion Introduction The17thcenturywasthecenturywhichlastedfrom1601to1700 Theprinciplequestionthataroseonthe17thcenturewastodowithauthority InpoliticsItwasaboutwhohadtherighttoauthorityandinwhatwaysitshouldbeused InphilosopyItwasaquestionofwhereauthoritylies withintheindividualoroutsideoftheindividual Introduction InscienceItwastodowithestablishingtheauthorityofevidencethroughtheuseofsciencemethod InreligionItwasaboutwhetherauthoritylieswithintheindividualorwiththechurch Part1Historicalbackground religion trade governance Threethingswerecrucialinthedevelopmentof17thcenturyEuropeansocieties TheproblemofreligiousdifferencesThegrowthofatradingmiddleclassThetheoriesandpracticeofgovernance Religion Likeotherreligiousreformersofthetime Huguenots胡格诺教徒feltthattheCatholicChurchneededradicalcleansingofitsimpurities andthatthePoperuledtheChurchasifitwasaworldlykingdom TheCatholicChurchinFranceopposedtheHuguenots andtherewereincidentsofattacksonHuguenotpreachersandcongregants聚会者astheyattemptedtomeetforworship Theheightofthispersecution迫害wastheSt Bartholomew sDaymassacre圣 巴多罗谬惨案 InFrench St Bartholomew sDaymassacre圣 巴多罗谬惨案 OnemorningatthegatesoftheLouvre Millais painting AHuguenotonSt Bartholomew sday KingHenryIV In1598 KingHenryIVsignedtheEditofNantes南特诏书 whichmadetheendofthereligiouswars andgavetheHuguenotstherighttoworshipintheirownway ThirtyYears War inGermany TheThirtyYears War 1618 1648 wasoneofthemostdestructiveconflictsinEuropeanhistory ThewarwasfoughtprimarilyinGermanyandatvariouspointsinvolvedmostofthecountriesofEurope InitiallythewarwasfoughtlargelyasareligiousconflictbetweenProtestantsandCatholicsintheHolyRomanEmpire ThirtyYears War inGermany Gradually thewardevelopedintoamoregeneralconflictinvolvingmostoftheEuropeanpowers AmajorimpactoftheThirtyYears Warwastheextensivedestructionofentireregions Religion inEngland Basedonconflictingpolitical religiousandsocialpositions therewasanEnglishCivilWarbetweenthesupportersofParliamentandthoseofkingCharlesI TheParliamentarianswerevictorious CharlesIwasexecutedandthekingdomreplacedwiththeCommonwealth联邦 LeaderoftheParliamentforces OliverCromwelldeclaredhimselfLordProtectorin1653 Religion inEngland BythetimeofCromwell sdeath Englandhadlargelygrownweary厌烦ofPuritan清教徒的rule soCharlesIIwasinvitedtoreturnasmonarch君主in1660withtheRestoration TheEnglishRestorationrestoredthemonarchyunderKingCharlesIIandpeaceaftertheEnglishCivilWar Tradeandthemiddleclass ThenumerouswarsdidnotpreventEuropeanstatesfromexploringandconqueringwideportionsoftheworld fromAfricatoAsiaandthenewlydiscoveredAmericas Thisexpansionhelpedtheeconomyofthecountriesowningthem Tradeflourished becauseoftheminorstabilityoftheempires MerchantsinVenice ElizabethIReigned1558 1603 44years 127days Elizabeth sreignisknownastheElizabethanera famousaboveallfortheflourishingofEnglishdrama andfortheseafaring航海事业的prowess威力ofEnglishadventurers Her44yearsonthethroneprovidedwelcomestabilityforthekingdomandhelpedforgeasenseofnationalidentity Trade Inthe16thcentury Hollandwasthecentreoffreetrade imposingnoexchangecontrols andadvocatingthefreemovementofgoods TradeintheEastIndieswasdominatedbyPortugalinthe16thcentury theNetherlandsinthe17thcentury andtheBritishinthe18thcentury TheSpanishEmpiredevelopedregulartradelinksacrossboththeAtlanticandthePacificOceans Trade Thegrowthoftradeandincreasingcommunicationraisedthequestionofinternationallaw HugoGrotius格劳修斯 Dutch 1583 1645 wroteOntheLawofWarandPeace论战争与和平法 1625 Helaidthefoundationsforinternationallaw basedonnaturallaw Mercantilism商业本位 重商主义 Mercantilismisaneconomictheory consideredtobeaformofeconomicnationalism经济国家主义 thatholdsthattheprosperityofanationisdependentuponitssupplyofcapital andthattheglobalvolumeofinternationaltradeis unchangeable Economicassets资产areheldbythestate whichisbestincreasedthroughapositivebalanceoftrade贸易的顺差withothernations Mercantilism Mercantilismsuggeststhattherulinggovernmentshouldadvancethesegoalsbyplayingaprotectionist贸易保护的roleintheeconomybyencouragingexportsanddiscouragingimports notablythroughtheuseoftariffs关税andsubsidies补贴 ThetheorydominatedWesternEuropeaneconomicpoliciesfromthe16thtothelate 18thcentury King Godandtaxation Greatchainofbeing存在之链GreatchainofbeingisaclassicalChristianandWesternmedievalconceptdetailingastrict hierarchicalstructure层次结构ofallmatterandlife believedtohavebeendecreed颁布byGod Greatchainofbeing ThechainstartsfromGodandprogressesdownwardtoangels demons魔鬼 fallen renegade变节的angels stars moon kings princes nobles men wildanimals domesticated驯养的animals trees otherplants preciousstones preciousmetals andotherminerals theGreatChainofBeing TheChainofBeingiscomposedofagreatnumberofhierarchicallinks fromthemostbasicandfoundationalelementsupthroughtheveryhighestperfection inotherwords God King Godandtaxation Asthespiritofquestioningandamoresecular长期的outlookaroseintheRenaissance thedivinerightofkingsbecameatopicofdebatewhichlastedfromthe1550suntilfarintothe18thcentury Pressuresforchangebuiltupthatcamefrom3mainsources legal socialandfinancial King Godandtaxation LegalchallengeHuguenots 胡格诺教徒 challengedthetheoryofabsoluterule maintainingthatwhenkingswereunjusttheycouldberesisted SocialchallengeKingsneededtobalancetheirpowerwiththatofthenobles FinancialchallengeTaxationgraduallybecamethecentralissueinthedistributionofpower AbsolutisminFrance Absolutism专制主义AbsolutismorTheAgeofAbsolutism 1610 1789 isatermusedtodescribeaformofmonarchicalpowerthatisunrestrainedbyallotherinstitutions suchaschurches legislatures AbsolutismistypicallyusedinconjunctionwithsomeEuropeanmonarchsduringthetransitionfromfeudalismtocapitalism LouisXIIIandLouisXIVofFranceareoftendescribedasabsoluterulers LouisXIIIandCardinalRichelieu LouisXIII 1601 1643 wasKingofFrancefrom1610to1643 CardinalRichelieu黎塞留枢机主教playedamajorroleinLouisXIII sadministrationfrom1624 LouisXIIIandCardinalRichelieu AsaresultofRichelieu swork LouisXIIIbecameoneofthefirstexamplesofanabsolutemonarch UnderLouisandRichelieu thecrownsuccessfullyintervened调停intheThirtyYears WaragainsttheHabsburgs哈普斯堡皇室 managedtokeeptheFrenchnobilityinline LouisXIIIandCardinalRichelieu andretracted取消thepoliticalandmilitaryprivilegesgrantedtotheHuguenotsbyHenryIV whilemaintainingtheirreligiousfreedoms Inaddition LouishadtheportofLeHavre勒阿弗尔 法国港市 modernized andhebuiltapowerfulnavy LouisXIII hiswifeAnne andCardinalRichelieuallbecamecentralfiguresinAlexandreDumas s大仲马novel TheThreeMusketeers三个火枪手 ThebookdescribesLouisasamanwillingtohaveRichelieuasapowerfuladvisorbutawareofhisscheming诡计多端 heisdepictedasaboredandsourman dwarfedbyRichelieu sintellect LouisXIV LouisXIV 1638 1715 knownastheSunKingwasKingofFrance Hisreign from1643tohisdeathin1715 beganattheageoffourandlastedseventy twoyears threemonths andeighteendays andisthelongestdocumentedreignofanyEuropeanmonarch LouisXIV FormuchofLouis sreign FrancestoodastheleadingEuropeanpower engaginginthreemajorwars theFranco DutchWar theWaroftheLeagueofAugsburg andtheWaroftheSpanishSuccession Heencouragedandbenefitedfromtheworkofprominentpolitical militaryandculturalfigures Idepart buttheStateshallalwaysremain Peopleusedastandardvocabulary portrayinghimasaugust conquering enlightened generous god given heroic illustrious immortal invincible just magnanimous pious triumphantandwise Inaword hewas great TheEnglishCivilWar TheEnglishCivilWar 1641 1651 wasaseriesofarmedconflictsandpoliticalmachinations诡计betweenParliamentariansandRoyalists Thefirst 1642 46 andsecond 1648 49 civilwarswerethesupportersofKingCharlesIagainstthesupportersoftheLongParliament whilethethirdwar 1649 51 wasbetweenthesupportersofKingCharlesIIandthesupportersoftheRumpParliament TheCivilWarendedwiththeParliamentaryvictoryon1651 CharlesI CharlesI 1600 1649 wasKingofEngland KingofScotlandandKingofIrelandfrom27March1625untilhisexecution CharlesengagedinastruggleforpowerwiththeParliamentofEngland CharlesI Charles lastyearsweremarkedbytheEnglishCivilWar inwhichhefoughttheforcesoftheEnglishandScottishParliaments whichchallengedtheking sattemptstooverruleandnegateParliamentaryauthority whilesimultaneouslyusinghispositionasheadoftheEnglishChurchtopursuereligiouspolicieswhichgeneratedtheantipathy反感ofreformedgroupssuchasthePuritans CharlesI CharleswasdefeatedintheFirstCivilWar 1642 45 afterwhichParliamentexpectedhimtoacceptitsdemandsforaconstitutional宪法的monarchy HeinsteadremaineddefiantbyattemptingtoforgeanalliancewithScotlandandescapingtotheIsleofWight怀特岛 英国 ThisprovokedtheSecondCivilWar 1648 49 andaseconddefeatforCharles whowassubsequentlycaptured convicted andexecutedforhightreason叛国罪 CharlesI ThemonarchywasthenabolishedandarepubliccalledtheCommonwealth联邦ofEnglandwasdeclared Charles son CharlesII becamekingaftertherestorationofthemonarchyin1660 Inthatsameyear CharlesIwascanonized封为圣徒as St CharlesStuart bytheChurchofEngland OliverCromwell克伦威尔 OliverCromwell 1599 1658 wasanEnglishmilitaryandpoliticalleaderbestknownforhisinvolvementinmakingEnglandintoarepublicanCommonwealthandforhislaterroleasLordProtectorofEngland Scotland andIreland CharlesII CharleswaspopularlyknownastheMerrieMonarch inreferencetoboththelivelinessandhedonism快乐主义ofhiscourtandthegeneralreliefatthereturntonormalityafteroveradecadeofrulebyOliverCromwellandthePuritans Charles swifebornnochildren butCharlesacknowledgedatleast12illegitimatechildrenbyvariousmistresses GloriousRevolution TheGloriousRevolution alsocalledtheRevolutionof1688 wastheoverthrowofKingJamesIIofEnglandin1688byaunionofParliamentarianswithaninvadingarmyledbytheDutchstadtholder总督WilliamIIIwho asaresult ascendedtheEnglishthroneasWilliamIIIofEngland GloriousRevolution TheGloriousRevolutioncanbearguedthatJames soverthrowbeganmodernEnglishparliamentarydemocracy neversincehasthemonarchheldabsolutepower andtheBillofRightshasbecomeoneofthemostimportantdocumentsinthepoliticalhistoryofBritain EquestrianportraitofWilliamIII TheBillofRightsof1689权利法案 TheBillofRightsisoftencalledtheEnglishBillofRights TheBillofRightswaspassedbyParliamentinDecember1689 SeeP 219 Part2Newdirectionsinthought The17thcenturyphilosophywassignificantbecauseforthefirsttimesincetheancientworld philosophywasclearlyseparatedfromthetheology andknowledgebegantobeconsideredtherightofallpeople Ren Descartes 1595 1650 勒奈 笛卡尔 Frenchphilosopher mathematician physicist Hehasbeendubbedthe FatherofModernPhilosophy andmuchofsubsequentWesternphilosophyisaresponsetohiswritings whichcontinuetobestudiedcloselytothisday Descartesisoftenregardedasthefirstthinkertoprovideaphilosophicalframeworkforthenaturalsciences Descartesarrivesatonlyasingleprinciple thoughtexists Thoughtcannotbeseparatedfromme Heisbestknownforthephilosophicalstatement Ithink thereforeIam orIamthinking thereforeIexist foundinpartIVofDiscourseontheMethod方法论 Ren Descartes 1595 1650 勒奈 笛卡尔 ThomasHobbes 1588 1679 托马斯 霍布斯 ThomasHobbeswasanEnglishphilosopher rememberedtodayforhisworkonpoliticalphilosophy His1651bookLeviathan 利维坦 establishedthefoundationformostofWesternpoliticalphilosophyfromtheperspectiveofsocialcontracttheory社会契约论 Leviathan利维坦 LeviathanisabookwrittenbyThomasHobbeswhichwaspublishedin1651 ItistitledafterthebiblicalLeviathan Thebookconcernsthestructureofsocietyandlegitimategovernment andisregardedasoneoftheearliestandmostinfluentialexamplesofsocialcontracttheory社会契约论 Inthebook ThomasHobbesarguesforasocialcontractandrulebyanabsolutesovereign君主 BaruchSpinoza 1634 1677 斯宾诺莎 DutchphilosopherofPortugueseJewishorigin Today heisconsideredoneofthegreatrationalists唯理论者of17th centuryphilosophy layingthegroundworkforthe18thcenturyEnlightenment 自由的人绝少想到死亡 他的智慧 不是死的默念 而是生的沉思 JohnLocke 1632 1704 约翰 洛克 EnglishphilosopherandphysicianregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialofEnlightenmentthinkers Lockewasthefirsttodefinetheselfthroughacontinuityofconsciousness SeeP 222 223 GottfriedWilhelmLeibniz 1646 1716 弗里德 威廉 莱布尼茨 Heoccupiesagrandplaceinboththehistoryofphilosophyandthehistoryofmathematics Heinventedcalculus微积分independentlyofNewton Healsoinventedthebinarysystem二进制 thefoundationofthemoderncomputersystem GottfriedWilhelmLeibniz 1646 1716 弗里德 威廉 莱布尼茨 Inphilosophy heismostlyrememberedforoptimism e g hisconclusionthatouruniverseis inarestrictedsense thebestpossibleoneGodcouldhavemade Hewas alongwithRen DescartesandBaruchSpinoza oneofthethreegreat17th centuryrationalistsandhisworkanticipatesmodernlogicandanalysis buthisphilosophyalsolooksbacktothescholastic经院哲学家的tradition inwhichlogicwasanimportantpart Part3ScienceJohannesKepler 1571 1630 约翰尼斯 开普勒 Germanmathematician astronomerandastrologer andkeyfigureinthe17thcenturyscientificrevolution Heisbestknownforhislawsofplanetarymotion HislawsprovidedthefoundationsforNewton stheoryofuniversalgravitation GalileoGalilei 1564 1642 伽利雷 伽利略 Galileohasbeencalledthe fatherofmodernobservationalastronomy the fatherofmodernphysics the fatherofscience andthe FatherofModernScience StephenHawkingsays Galileo perhapsmorethananyothersingleperson wasresponsibleforthebirthofmodernscience DomeoftheCathedralofPisawiththe lampofGalileo TheLeaningTowerofPisa TheLeaningTowerofPisaisthecampanileofthecathedraloftheItaliancityofPisa ItissituatedbehindtheCathedralandisthethirdoldeststructureinPisa sCathedralSquareaftertheCathedralandtheBaptistry Panoramicview theBaptistry InteriorviewoftheDuomo Pulpit SirIsaacNewton 1642 1727 Englishphysicist mathematician astronomer naturalphilosopherandtheologianwhoisconsideredbymanyscholarsandmembersofthegeneralpublictobeoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinhumanhistory SirIsaacNewton 1642 1727 His1687publicationofthePhilosophi NaturalisPrincipiaMathematica 自然哲学的数学原理 usuallycalledthePrincipia isconsideredtobeamongthemostinfluentialbooksinthehistoryofscience layingthegroundworkformostofclassicalmechanics经典力学 Inthiswork Newtondescribeduniversalgravitationandthethreelawsofmotionwhichdominatedthescientificviewofthephysicaluniverseforthenextthreecenturies Part4Theartsandliterature Baroqueisanartisticstyleprevalentfromthelate16thcenturytotheearly18thcentury Theword baroque camefromthePortuguesewordbarroco meaning misshapen奇形怪状的pearl astrikinglyfittingcharacterizationofthearchitectureofthisperiod later thenamecametobeappliedalsotopainting sculptureandmusic Part4Theartsandliterature Itismostoftendefinedas thedominantstyleofartinEuropebetweentheMannerist风格主义andRococo洛可可式的eras astylecharacterizedbydynamicmovement overtemotionandself confidentrhetoric Baroquearchitecture Baroquearchitecture startingintheearly17thcenturyinItaly TheBaroquewas initiallyatleast directlylinkedtotheCounter Reformation amovementwithintheCatholicChurchtoreformitselfinresponsetotheProtestantReformation Baroquearchitecture ProbablythebestknownexampleofsuchanapproachistrapezoidalSaintPeter sSquare whichhasbeenpraisedasamasterstrokeofBaroquetheatre Thesquareisshapedbytwocolonnades designedbyGianLorenzoBernini贝尼尼onanunprecedentedcolossal庞大的scaletosuitthespaceandprovideemotionsofawe敬畏 ViewofRomefromtheDomeofSt Peter sBasilica St Peter sSquare facingSaintPeter sBasilica andtheobelisk方尖石塔 Bernini smatchingfountain喷泉 1675 FrancescoBorromini博罗米尼 Bernini schiefrivalinthepapalcapitalwasFrancescoBorromini博罗米尼 whosedesignsdeviatefromtheregularcompositionsoftheancientworldandRenaissanceevenmoredramatically Borromini sarchitecturalspaceseemstoexpandandcontractwhenneeded showingsomeaffinitywiththelatestyleofMichelangelo TheChurchofSaintCharlesattheFourFountainswasBorromini smasterpieceofBaroquearchitecture TheChurchofSaintYvesisconsideredamasterpieceofRomanBaroquechurcharchitecture bythearchitectFrancescoBorromini Itdisplaysthesameantipathytotheflatsurface epitomizedbyacorkscrewlanterndome builtin1642 1660 CarloMaderno马代尔诺 CarloMaderno 1556 January30 1629 wasanItalian Swissarchitect whoisrememberedasoneofthefathersofBaroquearchitecture HisfacadesofSantaSusannaandSant AndreadellaVallewereofkeyimportanceintheevolutionoftheItalianBaroque FacadeofSt Peter sBasilica Windowsontheceiling allowingnaturallighttoilluminatetheinterior InteriorofSant AndreadellaValle FrenchBaroque FrenchBaroqueisaformofBaroquearchitecturethatevolvedinFranceduringthereignsofLouisXIII 1610 43 LouisXIV 1643 1714 andLouisXV 1714 74 FrenchBaroqueprofoundlyinfluenced18th centuryseculararchitecturethroughoutEurope Ch teaudeMaisons Laffitte1642迈松拉菲特城堡 Vaux le VicomtenearParis 1661凡尔赛宫 FrenchBaroque Forthefirsttime thecorpsdelogis中央建筑wasemphasizedastherepresentativemainpartofthebuilding whilethesidewingsweretreatedashierarchically分等级地inferiorandappropriatelyscaleddown Corpsdelogisisthearchitecturaltermwhichreferstotheprincipalblockofalarge usuallyclassical mansionorpalace Itcontainstheprincipalrooms stateapartmentsandanentry Thegrandestandfinestroomsareoftenonthefirstfloorabovethegroundlevel thisflooristhepianonobile主厅 PalaceofVersailles凡尔赛宫 PaintingandSculpture BaroquepaintingisthepaintingassociatedwiththeBaroqueculturalmovement Mostimportantandmajorpaintingduringtheperiodbeginningaround1600andcontinuingthroughoutthe17thcentury andintotheearly18thcenturyisidentifiedtodayasBaroquepainting Baroqueartischaracterizedbygreatdrama rich deepcolor andintenselightanddarkshadows PaintingandSculpture AmongthegreatestpaintersoftheBaroqueperiodareCaravaggio卡拉瓦乔 意大利 Rembrandt伦布兰特 荷兰 Rubens鲁宾斯 荷兰 Vel zquez委拉兹开斯 西班牙 Poussin普桑 法国 andVermeer维米尔 荷兰 MichelangeloCaravaggio 1571 1610 米开朗基罗 卡拉瓦乔 Caravaggio srealisticapproachtothehumanfigure painteddirectlyfromlifeanddramaticallyspotlitagainstadarkbackground openedanewchapterinthehistoryofpainting CrucifixionofSt Peter 1601 Thepaintingdepictsthemartyrdom殉难ofSt Peterbycrucifixion Peteraskedthathiscrossbeinvertedsoasnottoimitatehismentor Christ henceheisdepictedupside down Peterisheavierthanhisagedbodywouldsuggest andhisliftingrequirestheeffortsofthreemen asifthecrimetheyperpetrate犯alreadyweighsonthem BoywithaBasketofFruit 1593 Atonelevelthepaintingisagenrepiecedesignedtodemonstratetheartist sabilitytodepicteverythingfromtheskinoftheboytotheskinofapeach fromthefoldso