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ChapterFourInternationalContractLaw I IntroductionII FormationofContractIII ValidityofContractIV PerformanceofContractV RemediesforBreachofContract 1 KeyTerms Offer 要约Offeror 要约人Offeree 受要约人 承诺人Acceptance 接受 承诺Counteroffer 反要约Invitationtotreat Invitationoffer 要约邀请Withdrawalofoffer 要约的撤回Revocationofoffer 要约的撤销 2 Consideration 对价Cause 约因Promissoryestoppel 许诺性禁反言理论Misrepresentation 误解Pecuniaryloss 金钱损失Duress 胁迫Remedy 救济措施 3 I Introduction UnderCommonLaw contractmeansapromiseorsetofpromises forbreachofwhichthelawgivesaremedy UnderCivilLaw contractisa mutualassent or meetingofminds ChineseContractLawstatesthatacontractisanagreementbetweennaturalpersons legalpersonsorotherorganizationswithequalstanding forthepurposeofestablishing altering ordischargingarelationshipofcivilrightsandobligations 4 II FormationofContract 1 OfferandAcceptance 1 Offer1 DefinitionandRequirementsofanofferAnofferisastatementbyonepartyofawillingnesstoenterintoacontractonstatedterms providedthatthesetermsare inturn acceptedbythepartyorpartiestowhomtheofferisaddressed 5 UnderChinaContractLaw anofferisaparty smanifestationofintentiontoenterintoacontractwiththeotherparty whichshallcomplywiththefollowing Itstermarespecificanddefinite Itindicatesthatuponacceptancebytheofferee theofferorwillbeboundthereby 6 RequirementsofanOffer Contractualintention Itisaninvitationtotreat whichisusedtoinviteotherstomakeofferandlackoftheintentiontocreateabindingobligation Generally displayofgoodsforsale anadvertisementinanewspaper postedquotation 寄送的报价单 pricelist catalogue 商品目录 auctionsales 拍卖公告 andtenders 招标公告 areallaninvitationtotreat Definiteness Communicationofoffertoofferee 7 2 Terminationofoffer Revocationofofferbyofferor Incommonlawsystems anordinaryoffermayberevokedatanytimebeforeitisacceptedeventhoughtheofferorhasexpresslypromisedthattheofferwillbegoodforastatedperiodandthatperiodhadnotyetexpired Itmayalsoberevokedeventhoughtheofferorhasexpresslypromisedtotheoffereethattheofferwouldnotberevokedbeforeaspecifiedlaterdate 8 UnderGermanlaw anofferisbindingontheoffersoitishardlytoberevoked UnderChinaContractLaw anoffermaynotberevoked if a theofferorindicatesafixedtimeforacceptanceorotherwiseexplicitlystatesthattheofferisirrevocable or b theoffereehasreasonstorelyontheofferasbeingirrevocableandhasmadepreparationforperformingthecontract 9 Counterofferbyofferee AcompanysentanoffertoBcompanythatitwouldsell100computerstoBcompanyfor 200 000 Bcompanywrotebackthatitwouldacceptthecomputersfor 150 000 Bcompany sanswerisnotanacceptance butisacounteroffer becauseitchangedtheprice 10 MikesentJohnanofferthathewouldsellacartoJohnfor 10 000 Butbeforehavingreceivedtheoffer JohnwrotetoMikethathewantedtobuyMike scarfor 10 000 Althoughthecontentoftheletteristhesameastheoffer butit snotanacceptance It sa crossedoffer 11 Rejectionofofferbyofferee Lapseoftime Therearetwosituations Oneisthatiftheoffercontainsatimelimitationforacceptance noacceptanceaftertheexpirationofthattimehaslegaleffect theotheristhatiftheofferdoesnotspecifyatime itwillterminateafterthelapseofareasonabletime 12 2 AcceptanceAnacceptanceistheofferee smanifestationofintentiontoenterintoabindingagreementonthetermsstatedintheoffer 1 Requirementsofacceptance 13 Anacceptancemustbemadebytheofferee Anacceptancemustbecommunicatedtotheofferororanotherpersonwhoonhisbehalfwiththeofferor sauthoritarian 14 Anacceptancemustbemadewithintheperiodofvalidity Anacceptanceshouldmatchthetermsoftheofferexactlyandunequivocally Mostly silenceandinactivitycannotbeconstrued explainedasacceptance 15 2 Battleoftheforms Inmostcountriesthemirrorimagerule 镜像原则 isoneoftherequirementsofanacceptance Therulestatesthatanacceptanceshouldmatchthetermsoftheofferexactly unconditionallyandunequivocally 16 BattleoftheformsundercommonlawP108 109 BattleoftheformsundertheCISGUndertheCISG thekeyelementsofacontractthatwillmateriallyalteracontract price payment qualityandquantityofgoods placeandtimeofdelivery extentofoneparty sliabilitytotheother andsettlementofdisputes ThusundertheCISG almostanynewordifferenttermintheacceptancecouldconstituteacounteroffer 17 BattleoftheformsUnderChinaContractLawUnderChinaContractLaw thetermsoftheacceptanceshallbeidenticaltothoseoftheoffer Achangeinthesubjectmatter quantity quality priceorremuneration time placeandmethodofperformance liabilitiesforbreachofcontractormethodofdisputeresolutionisamaterialchangetothetermsoftheoffer 18 3 Timeofacceptance Themail boxrule 投邮原则 isthatthecontractisformedwhentheletterofacceptanceisplacedinthe outgoing mailbox Itappliesonlytoacceptance Undertherule anacceptanceiseffectiveoncetheletterofacceptanceisposted Itmakesnodifferencewhethertheofferoractuallyreceivestheletter 19 Thereceiptrule 到达原则 isthattheacceptancecanbeeffectiveifitwascommunicatedtotheaddressee Thedifferencebetweenthetworulesistheallocationofriskwhenanacceptanceislostordelayed UnderChinaContractLaw anoticeofacceptancebecomeseffectiveonceitreachestheofferor 20 2 ConsiderationandCause 1 Consideration1 DefinitionAvaluableconsideration inthesenseofthelaw mayconsisteitherinsomeright interest profitorbenefitaccruingtooneparty orsomeforbearance detriment loss orresponsibilitygiven sufferedorundertakenbytheother 21 2 Rulesofconsideration Considerationmustbegiven Considerationmustbereferabletothepromise Considerationmustbesufficient butneednotbeadequate Considerationmustmovefromthepromisee Considerationmustnotbefromthepast 22 Performanceofanexistingcontractualdutytothepromisorisnotconsideration Partpaymentofadebtisnotgoodconsideration Performanceofapubliclawdutyisnotgoodconsideration 23 TomagreedtosellhiscomputertoJohnfor 10 butlaterheregrettedtodoso Heclaimedthat 10wasn tanadequateconsideration Thecourtheldthatconsiderationcouldnotbeadequate andanenforceablecontractdependedonwhethertherewasconsiderationornot ThusTomcouldn twithdrawhiscomputer 24 3 Exceptionstorequirementofconsideration Sealedandwritteninstruments UniformCommercialCode Underthecode considerationisnotrequiredfor a amerchant swritten firmofferforgoodsstatedtobeirrevocable b awrittendischargeofaclaimforanallegedbreachofacommercialcontract or c anagreementtomodifyacontractforthesaleofgoods Promissoryestoppel 25 2 Cause Causeisthereasonwhyapartyentersacontractandundertakestoperformcontractualobligations Causeisdifferentfromconsiderationasthereasonwhyapartybindshimselfneednotbetoobtainsomethinginreturn 26 3 ContractualCapacity 1 NaturalPerson sContractualCapacityIncommonlaw therearethreeclassesofpersonswhoaregenerallynotconsideredtohavesufficientcapacitytobeboundbytheircontracts 1 Minors 2 MentallyImpairedorIncompetentPersons 3 DrunkPersons 27 Incivillawsystems forexample underFrenchCivilCode Articles1124and488providepersonswhoareincapableofenteringintoacontract 1 non emancipatedminors 2 adultswhomanimpairingofhispersonalfacultiesplacesintheimpossibilityofprovidingaloneforhisinterestsisprotectedbythelaw eitherontheoccasionofaspecifictransaction orinacontinuousmanner 3 adultswhobecauseofhisprodigality insobrietyoridleness areindangertofallintoneedorcompromisesthefulfillmentofhisfamilyobligations 28 InChina UnderGeneralPrinciplesoftheCivilLawofthePeople sRepublicofChinaArticle55 aciviljuristicactshallmeettherequirementthattheactorhasrelevantcapacityforcivilconduct 1 Fullcapacity 2 Limitedcapacity 3 Nocapacity 29 2 ArtificialPerson sContractualCapacity Theextentofanartificialperson scapacitydependsonthelawoftheplaceofincorporationandtheenablingprovisionsincludedintheconstitutivedocumentsofincorporation 30 III ValidityofContract 1 Mistake 1 CommonLaw1 CommonmistakeAcommonmistakeisthatwherethemistakeiscommontobothparties thepartieshavereachedagreement buttheagreementisbaseduponafundamentalmistakenassumption 31 2 UnilateralmistakesAunilateralmistakeisthatonlyonepartytoacontractismistakenwhenthemistakeisknowntotheothercontractingparty 3 MutualmistakeAmutualmistakeoccurswhenthepartiestoacontractarebothmistakenbutaboutthesamematerialfactwithintheircontract 32 2 CivilLawUnderFrenchlaw amistakeincontractaffectstheexistenceofthecontract Amistakeincontractdoesnotdestroyconsent itmerelynegativesconsent ortosimplify themistakeconcernsthevalidityofthecontract 33 UnderGermanlaw amistakedidnotaffectconsentinthatapartyhadactuallyconsentedtothecontractbutananalysishadtobemadeatthedistinctionbetweenthewillandwhatprecededtheoutwarddeclarationofthewill 34 3 ChinaChinaContractLawArticle54statesthatapartymaypetitionthePeople sCourtoranarbitrationinstitutionforamendmentorcancellationofacontractifthecontractwasconcludedduetoamaterialmistake 35 2 Misrepresentation 虚伪的陈述 1 FraudulentMisrepresentation 欺骗性的不正确说明 Theelementsoffraudulentmisrepresentationareasfollows 1 afalserepresentationismade 2 whichismaterialtothetransaction 3 whichismadewithknowledgeofitsfalsityorrecklessdisregardastowhetheritwastrueorfalse 36 4 withtheintentionbythepersonmakingtherepresentationthattherecipientwillbeinducedtoactorrefrainfromacting 5 whichrepresentationisjustifiablyrelieduponbytherecipient 6 whichrelianceproximatelycausestherecipienttosufferdamages 37 2 NegligentMisrepresentation Thefollowingarerequiredelementsforasuccessfulactionfornegligentmisrepresentation 1 Theremustbeadutyofcarebasedona specialrelationship betweentherepresentorandtherepresentee 2 Therepresentationmustbeuntrue inaccurateormisleading 38 3 Therepresentormusthaveactednegligentlyinmakingtherepresentation 4 Therepresenteemusthaverelied inareasonablemanner onthenegligentmisrepresentation 5 Thereliancemusthavebeendetrimentaltotherepresenteeinthesensethatdamagesresulted 39 3 InnocentMisrepresentation Innocentmisrepresentationinvolvesamistakethatisnotintentionallymisleading butresultsinanotherpartyenteringintoacontract 40 3 Duress 胁迫 Duressmeansathreatofharmmadetocompelapersontodosomethingagainsthisorherwillorjudgement especiallyawrongfulthreatmadebyonetocompelamanifestationofseemingassentbyanotherpersontoatransactionwithoutrealvolition 41 1 CommonLaw Ifapersonisinducedtoenterintoacontractasaresultofduressbytheotherparty thecontractisvoidable Duressincontractlawfallsintotwobroadcategories 1 Physicalduress 物质胁迫 Ifthereisviolenceorthreatofviolence ordamageoftheirgoodsthatthepersonisdeprivedandtheoffereewillandmakesthecontracttoavoidharm thepersonisunderphysicalduress 2 Economicduress 经济胁迫 42 2 CivilLaw UnderFrenchCivilCode thereisduresswhereitisofanaturetomakeanimpressionuponareasonablepersonandwhereitcaninspirehimwithafearofexposinghispersonorhiswealthtoconsiderableandpresentharm UnderGermanCivilCode whoeverhasbeeninducedtomakeadeclarationofintentionbyfraudorunlawfullythreatsmayrescindthedeclaration 43 3 China Ifapartyinducedtheotherpartytoenterintoacontractagainstitstrueintentionbyduress theaggrievedpartyisentitledtopetitionthePeople sCourtoranarbitrationinstitutionforamendmentorcancellationofthecontract 44 4 Fraud 欺诈 1 CommonLawFraudisafalserepresentationofapastorexistingfact whetherbywordsorbyconduct byfalseormisleadingallegations orbyconcealmentofwhatshouldhavebeendisclosed thatdeceivesandisintendedtodeceiveanothersothattheindividualwillactuponittoherorhislegalinjury 45 Generallyspeaking fraudshouldbeprovedbyshowingthatthedefendant sactionsinvolvedfiveseparateelements 1 Afalsestatementofamaterialfact 2 Thedefendantmustknowthatthestatementisuntrue 3 Intentonthepartofthedefendant 被告 todeceivetheallegedvictim 4 Thevictim srelianceonthefalsestatementmustbyreasonable 5 Thefalsestatementmustcausethevictimsomeinjurythatleavesherorhiminaworsepositionthansheorhewasinbeforethefraud 46 2 CivilLaw FrenchCivilCodeArticle1116providesthatfraudisagroundforannulmentofacontractwheretheschemesusedbyoneofthepartiesaresuchthatitisobviousthat withoutthem theotherpartywouldnothaveenteredintothecontract GermanCivilCodeSection123providesthatwhoeverhasbeeninducedtomakeadeclarationofintentionbyfraudmayrescindthedeclaration 47 3 China Ifapartyinducedtheotherpartytoenterintoacontractagainstitstrueintentionbyfraud theaggrievedpartyisentitledtopetitionthePeople sCourtoranarbitrationinstitutionforamendmentorcancellationofthecontract 48 5 UndueInfluence 不当影响 Undueinfluenceisanequitabledoctrinethatinvolvesonepersontakingadvantageofapositionofpoweroveranotherperson Fourelementsshouldbeshowntoestablishundueinfluence 1 Itmustbedemonstratedthatthevictimwassusceptibletooverreaching 49 2 Theremustbeanopportunityforexercisingundueinfluence 3 Theremustbeevidencethatthedefendantwasinclinedtoexerciseundueinfluenceoverthevictim 4 Theremustbeanunnaturalorsuspicioustransaction 50 6 Legality 合法性 1 TheCommonLawUnderthecommonlaw acontractisillegalifitinvolves 1 Contractillegalbystatute thoseobjectsareillegalbystatute includingprovisionofgoods servicewithoutnecessarylicensingorregistration 51 2 Contractillegalbycommonlaw thosecontemplatingthecommissionofatort orthosecontaininganundertakingtoindemnifyagainstdamagesfortortcommittedduringperformance 3 Contractsillegalbypublicpolicy thoseprejudicialtointereststotheStateorjustice 52 2 TheCivilLaw GermanCivilCodeSection138providesthat i alegaltransactionwhichisagainstpublicpolicyisvoid and ii alegaltransactionisalsovoidwherebyapersonexploitingtheneed carelessnessorinexperienceofanother causestobepromisedorgrantedtohimselfortoathirdpartyinexchangeforaperformance pecuniaryadvantages 金钱利益 whichexceedthevalueoftheperformancetosuchanextentthat underthecircumstances thepecuniaryadvantagesareinobviousdisproportiontotheperformance 53 FrenchCivilLawArticle6providesthatstatutesrelatingtopublicpolicyandmoralsmaynotbederogatedfrombyprivateagreements 54 3 ChinaContractLaw ChinaContractlawArticle52providesthatacontractisinvalidinanyofthefollowingcircumstances 1 Onepartyinducedconclusionofthecontractthroughfraudorduress therebyharmingtheinterestsofthestate 2 Thepartiescolludedinbadfaith therebyharmingtheinterestsofthestate thecollectiveoranythirdparty 55 3 Thepartiesintendedtoconcealanillegalpurposeundertheguiseofalegitimatetransaction 4 Thecontractharmspublicinterests 5 Thecontractviolatesamandatoryprovisionofanylaworadministrativeregulation 56 IV PerformanceofContract UnderFrenchCivilCode whenacontractisconcludedandvalid partiesmustfulfilltheirobligationsestablishedinthecontract GermanCivilCodeSection241providesthatbyvirtueofanobligationanobligee 权利人 isentitledtoclaimperformancefromtheobligor 义务人 57 ChinaContractLawArticle60providesthatthepartiesshallfullyperformtheirrespectiveobligationsinaccordancewiththecontract Ifarelevanttermofthecontractwasnotclearlyprescribed andcannotbedeterminedinaccordancewithArticle61 oneofthefollowingprovisionsapplies 58 1 Ifqualityrequirementwasnotclearlyprescribed performanceshallbeinaccordancewithstatestandardorindustrystandard absentanystateorindustrystandard performanceshallbeinaccordancewiththecustomarystandardoranyparticularstandardconsistentwiththepurposeofthecontract 59 2 Ifpriceorremunerationwasnotclearlyprescribed performanceshallbeinaccordancewiththeprevailingmarketpriceattheplaceofperformanceatthetimethecontractwasconcluded andifadoptionofapricemandatedbythegovernmentorbasedongovernmentissuedpricingguidelinesisrequiredbylaw suchrequirementapplies 60 3 Wheretheplaceofperformancewasnotclearlyprescribed iftheobligationispaymentofmoney performanceshallbeattheplacewherethepayeeislocated iftheobligationisdeliveryofimmovableproperty performanceshallbeattheplacewheretheimmovablepropertyislocated foranyothersubjectmatter performanceshallbeattheplacewheretheobligorislocated 61 4 Ifthetimeofperformancewasnotclearlyprescribed theobligormayperform andtheobligemayrequireperformance atanytime providedthattheperform andtheobligeemayrequireperformance atanytime providedthattheotherpartyshallbegiventhetimerequiredforpreparation 62 5 Ifthemethodofperformancewasnotclearlyprescribed performanceshallberenderedinamannerwhichisconducivetorealizingthepurposeofthecontract 6 Ifthepartyresponsiblefortheexpensesofperformancewasnotclearlyprescribed theobligorshallbeartheexpenses 63 V RemediesforBreachofContract 1 DamagesTheprimaryremedyforabreachofcontractundercommonlawisnotspecificperformance butdamages Therearefourkindsofdamages 1 ConsequentialDamages 间接损害 2 PunitiveDamages 惩罚性损害 3 LiquidatedDamages 规定的违约偿金 清算损害 4 NominalDamages 名义上的损害 64 1 CommonLaw 1 Remotenesslosses 间接损失 Therearetwotypesoflossforwhichdamagesmayberecovered whatarisesnaturally and whatthepartiescouldforeseewhenthecontractwasmadeasthelikelyresultofbreach 2 Themeasure orQuantum ofdamages Damagesarecompensatory notrestitutionary 3 LiquidatedDamages 违约金 andPunitiveDamages 65 2 CivilLaw Therearesubjectiveelementandobjectiveelementforthedeterminationoftheresponsibility Theobjectiveelementconstitutesof a unlawfulbehavior b harmfulfact and c linkofcausality 66 3 China UnderChinaContractLaw ifapartyfailstoperformitsobligationsunderacontract orrenderednon conformingperformance itshallbeartheliabilitiesforbreachofcontractbyspecificperformance cureofnon conformingperformanceorpaymentofdamages etc Theotherpartyshalltaketheappropriatemeasurestopreventfurtherloss 67 2 SpecificPerformance 具体履行 1 CommonLawTherearetwoprimarytypesofequitablerelief specificperformanceoraninjunction Specificperformancemaybeavailableincaseswheremoneydamagesareinadequate theitemhasparticularsentimentaloruniquevalue oralternativesarenotreadilyavailableduetoscarcity 68 Specificperformanceisnotavailableinthefollowingcircumstances 1 Damagesprovideanadequateremedy 2 Wheretheordercouldcauseunduehardship 3 Whereanorderofspecificperformancewouldbepossibleagainstonepartytothecontract butnottheother 69 4 Wherethepartyseekingtheorderhasactedunfairlyorunconscionably and5 Wheretheorderisnotsoughtpromptlytheclaimantwillbebarredbythemaxims DelaydefeatstheEquities and Equityassiststhevigilantbutnottheindolent 70 2 CivilLaw UnderFrenchCivilCode Article1184providesthataconditionsubsequentisalwaysimpliedinsynallagmaticcontracts 双务合同 forthecasewhereoneofthetwopartiesdoesnotcarryouthisundertaking UnderGermanCivilCode Article241providesthatbyvirtueofanobligationanobligeeisentitledtoclaimperformancefromtheobligor 7