Austins-Speech-Act-Theory.ppt

Chapter12ActingandConversing PresentedbyYuLiang Introduction Inspeakingtooneanother wemakeuseofsentences ortobemoreprecise utterances 话段 Wecanattempttoclassifytheseutterancesinanyoneofavarietyofways Wecantrytoclassifythembylength e g bycountingthenumberofwordsineachutterance Wecantrytoclassifythembygrammaticalstructurealonganumberofdimensions e g theirclausaltypeandcomplexity active passive statement question request exclamatory variouscombinationsofthese andsoon Wemayeventrytoworkoutasemanticorlogicalstructureforeachutterance Butitisalsopossibletoattemptaclassificationintermsofwhatsentencesdo i e totakea functional approach butonethatgoessomewhatbeyondconsiderationofsuchfunctionsasstating questioning requesting andexclaiming Inrecentyearsanumberofphilosophershavehadinterestingthingstosayaboutwhatutterancesdoaswellasmean observingthatpartofthetotalmeaningisthisverydoing Introduction Assoonaswelookcloselyatconversationingeneral weseethatitinvolvesmuchmorethanusinglanguagetostatepropositionsorconveyfacts Throughconversationweestablishrelationshipswithothers achieveameasureofcooperation orfailtodoso keepchannelsopenforfurtherrelationships andsoon Theutterancesweuseinconversationenableustodothesekindsofthingsbecauseconversationitselfhascertainpropertieswhicharewellworthexamining OurConcerninthischapter 1Wewillbeconcernedbothwithwhatutterancesdoandhowtheycanbeused 2Specificallywithhowweusetheminconversation Introduction PartI SpeechActs AustinandSearlePartII CooperationandFace GriceandGoffmanPartIII SomeFeaturesofConversation PartISpeechActs Proposition 命题 Onethingthatmanyutterancesdoismakepropositions theydothismainlyintheformofeitherstatementsorquestionsbutothergrammaticalformsarealsopossible E g Ihadabusydaytoday Haveyoucalledyourmother and Yourdinner sready Suchutterancesareconnectedinsomewaywitheventsorhappeningsinapossibleworld i e onethatcanbeexperiencedorimagined aworldinwhichsuchpropositionscanbesaidtobeeithertrueorfalse Theyhavebeencalledconstativeutterances 陈述话段 Adifferentkindofproposition theethicalproposition 伦理命题 E g Bigboysdon tcry Godislove Thoushaltnotkill Youmusttellthetruth Justlikeanordinaryproposition anethicalpropositionmaybetrueorfalse Buttruthandfalsityarenottherealpurposeofethicalpropositions theirrealpurposeistoserveasguidestobehaviorinsomeworldorother Bigboysdon tcry isobviouslyvalue ladeninawayinwhich Youdinnerisready definitelyisnot Phaticutterances 情感话段 Anotherkindofutteranceisthe phatic type e g Niceday Howdoyoudo and You relookingsmarttoday Weemploysuchutterancesnotfortheirpropositionalcontentbutratherfortheiraffectivevalueasindicatorsthatonepersoniswillingtotalktoanotherandthatachannelofcommunicationiseitherbeingopenedorbeingkeptopen Phaticutterancesdonotreallycommunicateanything rather theiruseallowscommunicationtooccurshouldtherebeanythingofconsequencetosay SpeechActTheory言语行为理论Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse ByJohnAustinHowtoDoThingswithWords 1962 怎样用词做事 Thephilosopher J L Austin 1962 distinguishedstillanotherkindofutterance theperformativeutterance 施为话段 Inusingaperformativeutterance apersonisnotjustsayingsomethingbutisactuallydoingsomethingifcertainreal worldconditionsaremet Britishphilosopher J L Austin Performative sayingitselfaccomplishingacertainaction affecting orchangingtheworldinsomeway suchutterancesperformacts 他们的特点在于不止是言有所述 而且是言有所为 InamethisshipQueenElizabeth Incertaincircumstancesistonameaship Ido Inothercircumstancesistofindoneselfahusbandorawife Performativeverbs promise order ask propose suggest tell warn report name etc Performativevs Constative Ipromisetoloveyou Ifireyou Performativevs Constative Constatives utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact reportthatsomethingisthecase ordescribewhatsomethingis e g Ipoursomeliquidintothetube Anutterancewhichassertssomethingthat seithertrueorfalse E g IgototheparkeverySunday IteachEnglish It sraining Thecatisintheroom Performative vs Constative Theperformativeutteranceisusedtoperformanaction soithasnotruthvalue Theconstativeutteranceisverifiableanditiseithertrueorfalse Felicityconditions合适条件Thereareconditionsforperformativestomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous Austinsuggestedthefollowingconditions A aconventionalproceduremustexistfordoingwhateveristobedone andthatproceduremustspecifywhomustsayanddowhatandinwhatcircumstances B Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletelybyallparticipants C Thenecessarythoughts feelings andintentionsmustbepresentinallparties Ingeneral thespokenpartofthetotalact theactualspeechact willtakethegrammaticalformofhavingafirst personsubjectandaverbinthepresenttense itmayormaynotalsoincludethewordhereby Examplesare I hereby name Wedecree and Iswear Thiskindofutteranceisexplicitlyperformativewhenitisemployedinaconventionalframework suchasnamingships makingroyalproclamations andtakinganoathincourt Austinalsoacknowledgesthattherearelessexplicitperformatives Declarationslike Ipromise Iapologize or Iwarnyou havemanyofthesamecharacteristicsasthepreviouslymentionedutterancesbutlackanyassociatedconventionalprocedure foranyonecanpromise apologize andwarn andthereisnowayofspecifyingthecircumstancesquitesonarrowlyasinnamingships proclaiming orswearinganoath Itisalsoonoccasionpossibletouseothergrammaticalformsthancombinationoffirstpersonandpresenttense Thinice 冰层太薄 Savagedog 当心野狗 Slipperywhenwet 小心湿滑 areallveryobviouslywarnings sotothatextenttheyareperformatives Fivecategoriesofperformatives Austin 1 verdictives 裁决型 typifiedbythegivingofaverdict estimate grade orappraisal Wefindtheaccusedguilty 2 exercitives 行使型 theexercisingofpowers rightsorinfluencesasinappointing ordering warning oradvising Ipronounceyouhusbandandwife 3 commissives 承诺型 typifiedbypromisingorundertaking andcommittingonetodosomethingby forexample announcinganintentionorespousingacause Iherebybequeath 4 behabitives 表态型 havingtodowithsuchmattersasapologizing congratulating blessing cursing orchallenging Iapologize 5 expositives 阐述型 atermusedtorefertohowonemakesutterancesfitintoanargumentorexposition Iargue Ireply or Iassume Locution Illocution andPerlocution AccordingtoSearle 1969 weperformdifferentkindsofactswhenwespeak Theutterancesweusearelocutions 发话行动 Mostlocutionsexpresssomeintentthataspeakerhas Theythereforehaveanillocutionaryforce 行事语力 Aspeakercanalsousedifferentlocutionstoachievethesameillocutionaryforceoruseonelocutionformanydifferentpurposes Schiffrin 1994 ch 3 hasaverygoodexampleofthelatter Sheshowsoneform Y wantapieceofcandy canperformmanyfunctionsasaspeechact includingquestion request andoffer Incontrast wecanseehowdifferentformscanperformasinglefunctionsinceitisquitepossibletoasksomeonetoclosethedoorwithdifferentwords It scoldinhere Thedoor sopen and Couldsomeoneseetothedoor Illocutionsalsooftencauselistenerstodothings Tothatextenttheyareperlocutions 取效 Ifyousay Ibetyouadollarhe llwin andIsay On yourillocutionaryactofofferingabethasledtomyperlocutionaryuptakeofacceptingit Theperlocutionaryforceofyourwordsistogetmetobet andyouhavesucceeded Whenasentenceisuttered thespeakerisperformingthreekindsofspeechactssimultaneously locutionaryact illocutionaryact andperlocutionaryact LocutionaryAct 说话行为 叙事行为 Whenwespeak wemovevocalorgansandproducesomesounds organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning Thisactiscalledalocutionaryact Itistheutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference 为了叙述某事而说出话语 称 言之发 e g Somebodysays Morning Wecanask Whatdidhedo Andtheanswercouldbethatheproducedasound wordorsentence Morning 2 llocutionaryAct 行事 施事行为 Theactofexpressingthespeaker sintention tosaysomethingistodosomething 在说出话语时不仅叙述某件事 而且做出了某件事 称 示言外之力 InsayingX IwasdoingY Iwillcometomorrow Iwasmakingapromise e g Morning Ithastheforceofagreeting Illocutionaryforce 行事 施事语力 isequivalenttospeaker smeaning contextualmeaning orextrameaning 言外之意 3 PerlocutionaryAct 取效行为 Theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsayingsomething achievingtheeffectsonthehearer 说出话语后 在听话人身上产生了某种效果 收言后之果 BysayingXanddoingY IachievedtheeffectsofZ Iwillcometomorrow makingapromise Ireassuremyfriends e g Morning anutterance asagreeting havingeffectsonthehearerthatthespeakerwantstokeepfriendlyrelationswiththehearer Fiverulesthatgovernpromise making Searlehasconcentratedhisworkonspeechactsonhowahearerperceivesaparticularutterancetohavetheforceithas whathecallsthe uptake 领会 ofanutterance Inparticular whatmakesapromiseapromise ForSearletherearefiverulesthatgovernpromise making Thepropositionalcontentrule 命题内容原则 isthatthewordsmustpredicateafutureactionofthespeaker 2 3 Thepreparatoryrules 预备性原则 requirethatboththepersonpromisingandthepersontowhomthepromiseismademustwanttheactdoneandthatitwouldnototherwisebedone Moreover thepersonpromisingbelievesheorshecandowhatispromised Thesincerityrule 真诚原则 requiresthepromisertointendtoperformtheact thatis tobeplacedundersomekindofobligation Theessentialrule 基本原则 saysthattheutteringofthewordscountsasundertakinganobligationtoperformtheaction Tworulesthatcontroltheperformanceofspeechacts 1 Regulativerules 制约性规则 arethingslikelawsandregulationspassedbygovernmentsandlegislativebodies theyregulatewhatisrightandwrongandsometimesprescribesanctionsifandwhentherulesarebroken e g Trespassingisforbidden or Noparking IfX doYWearesupposedtosay Hi ifwemeetourfriend Whenthetrafficisred youshouldnotcrosstheroad 2 Constitutiverules 构成性规则 areliketherulesofbaseball chess orsoccer theyactuallydefineaparticularactivityintheformof doingXcountsY sothatif incertainprescribedcircumstances youstrikeaballinaparticularwayorsucceedinmovingitintoacertainplace thatcountsasa goal Therulesconstitutethegame withoutthemthegamedoesnotexist Inthesameway speechactsarewhattheyarebecausesayingsomethingcountsassomethingifcertainconditionsprevail Languagecandothings canperformacts becausepeopleshareconstitutiverulesthatcreatetheactsandthatallowthemtolabelutterancesasparticularkindsofacts Schiffrin 1994 Searle sclassificationofillocutionaryacts Assertives 断言类expotives statingordescribing sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue E g assert claim affirm state deny inform notify remind etc Directives 指令类verdictives tryingtogetthehearertodosomething E g request ask urge tell demand command order advise etc Commissives 承诺类commissives committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction Emit promise threaten pledge consent refuse offer guarantee etc Expressives 表达类behabitives expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate E g apologize boast thank deplore welcome congratulate etc Declarations 宣告类exercitives bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething E g declare resign appoint nominate bless name etc Conclusion IncontrasttoAustin whofocusedhisattentiononhowspeakersrealizetheirintentionsinspeaking Searlefocusesonhowlistenersrespondtoutterances thatis howonepersontriestofigureouthowanotherisusingaparticularutterance Iswhatisheardapromise awarning anassertion arequest orsomethingelse Whatistheillocutionaryforceofaparticularutterance WhatweseeinbothAustinandSearleisarecognitionthatpeopleuselanguagetoachieveavarietyofobjectives Ifwewanttounderstandwhattheyhopetoaccomplish wemustbepreparedtotakeintoaccountfactorsthatrangefarbeyondtheactuallinguisticformofanyparticularutterance AccordingtophilosopherssuchasGrice weareabletoconversewithoneanotherbecausewerecognizecommongoalsinconversationandspecificwaysofachievingthesegoals Inanyconversation onlycertainkindsof moves 行动 arepossibleatanyparticulartimebecauseoftheconstraintsthatoperatetogovernexchanges Theseconstraintslimitspeakersastowhattheycansayandlistenersastowhattheycaninfer Gricemaintainsthattheoverridingprincipleinconversationisonehecallsthecooperativeprinciple 合作原则 Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired atthestageatwhichitoccurs bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged Youmustthereforeactinconversationinaccordwithageneralprinciplethatyouaremutuallyengagedwithyourlistenerorlistenersinanactivitythatisofbenefittoall thatbenefitbeingmutualunderstanding PartIICooperationandFace Gricelistsfourmaximsthatfollowfromthecooperativeprinciple Themaximofquantity 数量准则 适量准则 requiresyoutomakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired Themaximofquality 质量准则 真实准则 requiresyounottosaywhatyoubelievetobefalseorthatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence Themaximofrelation 关联准则 isthesimpleinjunction berelevant Themaximofmanner 方式准则 明晰准则 requiresyoutoavoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity andtobebriefandorderly Thisprincipleandthesemaximscharacterizeidealexchanges Suchexchangeswouldalsoobservecertainotherprinciplestoo suchas Bepolite Gricealsopointsoutthatthesemaximsdonotapplytoconversationalone Themaximsareinvolvedinallkindsofrationalcooperativebehavior weassumetheworldworksaccordingtoasetofmaximsorruleswhichwehaveinternalized andwegenerallydoourbesttomakeitworkinthatway P 287 Ofcourse everydayspeechoftenoccursinlessthanidealcircumstances Gricepointsoutthespeakerdonotalwaysfollowthemaximshehasdescribed andasaresult theymayimplicatesomethingratherdifferentfromwhattheyactuallysay Theymayviolate exploit oroptoutofoneofthemaxims ortwoofthemaximsmayclashinaparticularinstance E g A Iamoutofpetrol B Thereisagarageroundthecorner Inthissethesaysthatnomaximisviolated forB sresponseisanadequateresponsetoA sremark Hegivesfurtherexamples however inwhichthereisadeliberateexploitationofamaxim E g DearSir Mr X scommandofEnglishisexcellent andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular Yours Mr Xisapplyingforalectureshipinphilosophy Atestimonialletterpraisingacandidate sminorqualitiesandentirelyignoringthosethatmightberelevanttothepositionforwhichthecandidateisbeingconsideredfloutsthemaximofquantity justasdoesprotestingyourinnocencetoostrongly Otherexamplesareironic metaphoric orhyperbolicinnature You reafinefriend saidtosomeonewhohasjustletyoudown Youarethecreaminmycoffee and Everynicegirllovesasailor Whatwedoinunderstandinganutteranceistoaskourselvesjustwhatisappropriateintermsofthesemaximsinaparticularsetofcircumstances Weassesstheliteralcontentoftheutteranceandtrytoachievesomekindoffitbetweenitandthemaxims Consequently theanswertothequestion WhyisXtellingmeinthisway ispartofreachingadecisionaboutwhatexactlyXistellingme E g InsteadofSmithsayingtoyouthat MissXsang HomeSweetHome hesays MissXproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescoreof HomeSweetHome youwillobservethatSmith sfailuretobebriefhelpsdamnMissX sperformance Thetheoryofimplicature 暗示 explainshow whenAsayssomethingtoB BwillunderstandA sremarksinacertainwaybecauseBwillrecognizethatAsaidmorethanwasrequired orgaveaseeminglyirrelevantreply ordeliberatelyobfuscatedtheissue BwillinterpretwhatAsaysasacooperativeactofaparticularkindintheongoingexchangebetweenAandB butthatcooperationmaybeshownsomewhatindirectly BwillhavetofigureoutthewayinwhichA sutteranceistobefittedintotheirongoingexchange andB soperatingassumptionwillbethattheutteranceiscoherent thatsensecanbemadeofit andthatprinciplesnecessarytodosoareavailable Thetaskisnotanunprincipledone Grice smaximsprovidethenecessaryinterpretiveframeworkwithinwhichtoestablishtherelevanceofutterancestoeachother FaceConversationiscooperativealsointhesensethatspeakersandlistenerstendtoaccepteachotherforwhattheyclaimtobe thatis theyacceptthefacethattheotheroffers Thatfacemayvaryaccordingtocircumstances foratonetimethefaceyouoffermemaybethatofa closefriend onanotheroccasiona teacher andonathirdoccasiona youngwoman butitisafacewhichIwillgenerallyaccept Iwilljudgeyourwordsagainstthefaceyouarepresenting anditisverylikelythatwewillbothagreethatyouareataparticularmomentpresentingacertainfacetomeandIampresentingacertainfacetoyou WewillinvolvedinwhatGoffman 1955 hascalledface work 面子功夫 theworkofpresentingfacestoeachother protectingourownface andprotectingtheother sface Wewillbeplayingoutalittledramatogetherandcooperatingtoseethatnothingmarstheperformance Thatisnorm FaceOfcourse onepartymayviolatethatnorm Icanrefusetoacceptyouforwhatyouclaimtobe denyyourrighttothefaceyouareattemptingtopresent andevenchallengeyouaboutit Imayalsoregardyourfaceasinappropriateorinsincere butsaynothing reservingmyjudgmentsaboutyourdemeanorandwordstomyself Thesecondcourseofactionisthemoreusual challengingsomeoneaboutthefaceheorsheispresentingisgenerallyavoided andthosewhomakearegularpracticeofitquicklyfindthemselvesunwelcomealmosteverywhere eventoeachother Conversationthereforeinvolvesaconsiderableamountofrole playing wechoosearoleforourselvesineachconversation discovertheroleorrolestheotherortheothersareplaying andthenproceedtoconstructalittledramaticencounter muchofwhichinvolvesrespectingothers faces Alltheworldisastage andweareplayers n PartIIISomeFeaturesofConversation Speechcanbeplannedorunplanned Weshouldnotethatalotofspeechhasacertainamountofplanninginit itmaynotbeallthoughtoutandcarefullyplanned butpartsmaybepre plannedtoagreaterorlesserextent Unplannedspeechistalkwhichisnotthoughtoutpriortoitsexpression Thesyntaxofunplannedconversationisalsonotatallthatofformal editedwrittenprose Itiscomposedofutterancesthatareoftenfragmentedandoverlapping However unplannedspeechisnotunorganizedspeech Whenwelookathowactualspeechorconversationisorganized webegintoappreciatehowcomplexitisassoonaswetrytodeviseanykindofsystemfortalkingaboutthevariousbitsandpiecesthatoccurandrecur However findingtheorganizationalprinciplesusedoffersussomehope Eventhemostunpredictableofconversationsislikelytomakeuseofsuchprinciples infact wemightarguethatsomethingisaconversationnotsomuchbyreasonofwhatwassaidbutbyreasonofhowitwassaid i e bytheuseofcertainprinciplesthatweemploytimeandtimeagaintostructurewhatwewanttosay Whatspeakersandlistenershaveisasetofsuchprinciples whattheydoinaparticularconversationisdrawonthatset Itisalsosometimessaidthatconversationsarelocallymanaged i e theyactuallyproceedwithoutanyconsciousplanandtheparticipantssimplyrelyonusingtheprinciplesthatareavailabletothemtoachieveanywiderobjectivestheyhave 1 Adjacencypair 相邻语对 Oneparticularimportantprinciplesusedinconversationistheadjacencypair Utterancetypesofcertainkindsarefoundtoco occur greeting greeting question answer complaint apology rejection invitation acceptance rejection offer acceptance rejecti