中国的传统与转型》第三章.ppt

China TraditionandTransformationLecturer LiewJien中国的传统与转型SWUFE 3 ClassicChina TheGoldenAgeOfChineseThought 3 1TheLaterChouWedonotknowhowlongtheearlyChoumaintainedeffectivecontrolovertheirwideconquests perhapsnotforlongoronlysporadically Theoriginalbondsofloyaltybetweenthekingsandtheirvassalsprobablyweakenedovertime In841B C thetenthChoukingwasdrivenoutofhiscapitalbyitscitizens andaninterregnumofthirteenyearsensued MarxistChinesehistoriansmakemuchofthiseventasthefirstpopularuprisinginChinesehistory Itproducedconsiderabledisruption andperhapsthisaccountsforthefactthattraditionalChinesedatingbecomesreliableonlyafterthatdate ThenextkingmanagedtoresuscitateChoupowerandissaidtohaveledarmiesof3000chariotsand30 000men ascomparedwiththe350chariotsusedintheoriginalconquest In770B C however whatremainedofChoupowerwasextinguishedwhen barbarians inalliancewithrebelChineseprincipalitiesdestroyedthecapital Traditionsaysthatthethirteenthking bylightingthebeaconfires hadrepeatedlysummonedhisvassals troopsmerelytoamuseafavoriteconcubine andnowwhenhelpwasreallyneedednooneresponded Theroyallinewasre establishedatthesubsidiarycapitalofLoyangtotheeast buttheChoukingsneveragainexercisedanyrealpoliticalormilitarypower remainingonlycertainreligiousandceremonialfunctionsuntiltheirfinalextinctionin256B C Theperiodbefore770B C iscalledtheWesternChoufromthelocationofthecapital andtheperiodafter770 theEasternChou TheChinese despiteastrongemphasisonthedecimalsystemincounting theyhadlittleusefordozens theseven dayweek andthelike havenottraditionallycountedtimebycenturies Insteadtheyhavedividedhistoryintodynasticsegments suchastheWesternChouandtheEasternChou TheChinesefurthersubdividepartoftheEasternChouintotwoshorterperiods thenameofwhichwillbeexplainedlater Thesearethe SpringandAutumn period usuallydated722 481 andthe WarringStates period commonlydated403 221 ThechronologicalchartincludedinthisvolumewillhelpthereadercoordinatetheChinesedynastiesandperiodswiththeWesternsystemofcountingyears 3 1 1TechnologicalandEconomicGrowth LaterChinese imbuedwiththeidealofaunifiedempire havelookedbackontheEasternChouasaperiodofhopelessdisunity Butitwasanageofdynamicgrowth burstingenergy andtremendouscreativity Possiblytheverylackofcentralauthorityandthemultiplicityofrivalstatesservedasstimuli InmanywaystheEasternChouisthemostexcitingandromanticphaseofChinesehistory IntheeighthcenturyB C ChinawasstilltechnologicallybehindWestAsia butbytheendoftheperiodithadlargelycaughtupandalreadywasthemostpopulouslandonearth ThesevenlargestoftheChinesestatestogethermayhavehadintheneighborhoodof20millionpeople quitecomparabletothewholeofWestAsiaandtheMediterraneanarea Iron whichhadappearedaboutamillenniumearlierintheWest becamecommoninchinabythefifthcenturyB C Ironreplacedbronzefoeweapons andironfarmingtoolandtheox drawnplowbroughtanagriculturalrevolutiontoChina HithertounframedareasinNorthChinawerebroughtundertheplow andtheremainingislandof barbarian peopleswereabsorbedintothedominantculture Grainyieldswerealsogreatlyexpandedbylarge scaleirrigationandotherwater controlprojects andgreateffortwasdevotedtotheconstructionoftransportcanals indicatingthegrowthoftheeconomicunitandtherisingneedtomovelargequantitiesoftaxgrainsandothercommoditiesoverlongdistances Thegrowthofproductionwasaccompaniedbyarapiddevelopmentoftradeandatremendousincreaseinwealthy AstheChouperiodprogressesonehearsmoreandmoreofwealthymerchantsofalltypes Thisnewlyrisenclassproveddisruptivetotheoldaristocraticorder whichperhapsinself defense propagatedatheorythatsocietyconsistoffourclasses thewarrior administratorsatthetop thepeasantsorprimaryproducersnext theartisansorsecondaryproducersthird andlastofallthemerchants whoseeconomicvalueseemeddubioustothearistocrats HoweverunrealisticthistheorywaseveninlateChoutimes itremainedEastAsiadogmaforthenexttwomillennium Whileboltsofmilkandingotsofpreciousmetalhadcomeintoearlyuseasmediaofexchangeandcontinuedtobeuseduntilmoderntimes coppercoinagebecameprevalentatthistime Atfirstthecoinswereintheshapeofsmallagriculturaltoolsinthewesternpartsofthecountryandsmallknivesintheeast butbeforetheendoftheChouerathecoppercash asmallroundcoinwithasquareholeforstringingpurposes hadcomeintouse anditremainedthestandardChinesecoinuntillateinthenineteenthcentury ThelateChoualsosawtheappearanceofothercharacteristicfeaturesofChinesecivilization suchaschopsticksandlacquer 3 1 2TheStatesoftheEasternChouPeriod Handinhandwithtechnologicalandeconomicprogresswentasteadygrowthoftheeffectivepoliticalunit asthegreatwater controlactivityofthelattercenturiesoftheeraclearlyshows Amongthewelterofpettycity statesthatcoveredtheNorthChinaPlain sometenalreadystoodoutbytheeighthcenturyB C aslargerandmoreefficientunits Thesestates however losttheirleadershipinlatercenturiestothoseontheperipheryoftheChouculturalarea Crowdedtogetherinthecenter theyhadlessroomforgrowth andtheywereprobablymoreconstrainedbytraditionfrommakinginnovationsinpolitical military andeconomictechniques ThestatesofLuandSung forexample despitetheproudtraditionthattheirrulersweredescendedfromtheDukeofChouandtheShangroyallinerespectively anddespitetheirprominenceintheearlyyearsoftheEasternChou graduallydegeneratedtothestatusofsatellitesoftheperipheralstates Ch iwastypicaloftheborderstates LocatedontheeasternedgeoftheNorthChinaPlain itextendeditsswayoverthegreaterpartofthehillyShantungPeninsula increasingitsareasixfoldintheseventhandsixthcenturiesB C andwinningcontroloveranareacomparabletoamodernChineseprovince Onthenorth inmodernShansiProvince thestateofChincarvedoutacomparabledomain Beyondittothenortheast intheareaaroundthemodernPeking wasYen fromwhichhasbeenderivedtheliterarynameforPeking Yen ching orthe Yencapital Inthewest Ch in regardedassemi barbarian bytheothers replacedtheChouintheWeiValley Inthesouth thesemi barbarian stateofCh uhadbytheeighthcenturybuildupavastdomainalongthemiddlereachesoftheYangtzeRiver FromthestartitrejectedtheemptypretenseofChourulebycallingitsownrulerswang or kings ToitseastthestateofWuhadbythesixthcenturycometodominatetheareaaroundthelowerYangtze RecentarchaeologicaldiscoveriesindicatethatitgrewfromanearlyChououtpostamong barbarian peoples OnthecoastalregionbeyondWuappearedthepowerfulstateofYueh Situatedinaregionofgreatlakesandnavigablerivers thesethreesouthernstateswerewaterpowers withfleetsaswellasarmies Wuistheoriginofthename Wudialect forthelanguageoftheShanghaiarea andinYuehwehavethefirstappearanceofanamethatclungtotheedgeoftheadvancingsouthernboundaryoftheChineseculturalarea comingtoresteventuallyinVietnam or YuehSouth TheregionsruledbythegreatperipheralstatesfellforthemostpartwithintheareaoftheearlyChouconquests buttheywereinpartinhabitedbywhatpeopleintheChineseheartlandconsideredtobe barbarians Onthenorthandwestthese barbarians presumablypastoralfolk someperhapsalreadyChinese speaking Inthesouth theywereagriculturalpeopleliketheChinesebutweresaidtospeakunintelligibletongues thoughthesewereprobablyrelatedSiniticlanguages andtheyclearlyhadmanyotherdistinctiveculturalfeatures Theincorporationofthese barbarian peoplesintotheChineseculturalareaduringtheEasternChouperiodwasthestartofthegreatprocessofacculturationbywhichtheoriginallynon ChinesepeoplesoftheYangtzeValleyandSouthChinaweregraduallydrawnintothemainstreamofChinesecivilization exceptforafewstillunassimilatedremnantsintheextremesouthwest 3 1 3PoliticalandSocialInnovation TheearlyChoucity stateswerehighlyaristocraticsocieties Theirrulinglordsclaimedasortofreligiouslegitimacyasthemaintainersofsacrificestothecommonancestors andtheirwarriorhenchmenwerelargelytheirownrelatives Butastechnologyadvanced wealthincreased tradegrew populationrose andthepoliticalunitexpanded thisoldformofaristocratic almosttribalorganizationbecameoutmoded Manyoftheindividualstatesbecametoolargeandcomplexforsuchfamily likecontrol Theoldcommunaluseoflandwasgraduallyreplacedbyprivateownership andpowerfulnewfamilies whosewealthwasbasedonthelandstheyownedoroncommerce replacedtheoldaristocracyofcloserelativesofthelords Newlyrisenfamiliesofthissortsometimesevenoverthrewandreplacedtheoldrulers OnefamousexampleofthiswasthesplitupofthenorthernstateofChinintothesuccessorstatesofHan Wei andChao Thisoccurredin453B C andwasofficiallyrecognizedbytheChoukingin403 Bothdatesareusedasthestartofthe WarringStates period Iflargedomainsweretobekeptundercontrolandifsubjectswerenottochallengetheauthorityoftheirlords therehadtobestrongerandmoreeffectivemethodsofrulethanwereusedintheoldaristocraticsociety Theresultwasthedevelopmentofmoreimpersonalpoliticalinstructionsandagreatercentralizationofpower SeveralimportantinnovationsofthissortareattributedtoDukeHuan 685 643B C oftheeasternstateofCh iandhisministerKuan tzu towhomalaterbookofthisnameispopularlyattributed TheyaresaidtohavedividedthepopulationofCh iintogeographicunitscontrolledbythecentralgovernment institutedauniformtaxsystem andreorganizedthemilitaryforcesbyrequiringthatthevariousgeographicsubunitsprovideleviesforacentralarmy insteadofrelyingonsuchhouseholdunitsasthehereditaryaristocracymightbringintothefield Ch iisalsosaidtohavehadanactiveeconomicpolicy attemptingtocontrolprices regulateweightsandmeasures andencouragetrade Thefirststatemonopoliesofsaltandironproduction whichweretobecomemajoreconomicsupportsofcentralizedgovernmentinChina arealsotraditionallyattributedtoKuan tzu ItishardtosayhowmanyoftheseinnovationsactuallydatebacktotheseventhcenturyB CortookplacefirstinCh i Statemonopoliesprobablydidnotdevelopthatearly butallthereformsattributedtoKuan tzuwereimportantinnovationsthathadappearedinChinabythelatterpartoftheChouperiod Unquestionablyamajoraspectofthecentralizationofpowerwastheestablishmentofauniform centrallycontrolledsystemoflocalgovernmentandthedevelopmentofclearsystemofagriculturaltaxes Anotherkeyfactorwastheappearanceofbureaucraticadministratorstoreplacetheoldrelatedaristocratsastheaidesoftheruler Kuan tzuhimselfisthefirstclearexampleofsuchabureaucrat Writtenlawcodesalsocametoreplacetheoldsystemofpersonalruleonthebasisofacceptedtradition ThefirstknowntohistorywasthatofDukeWen 445 396 ofWei oneofthethreesuccessorstatesofChin 3 1 4MilitaryDevelopment Meanwhilethescaleandnatureofwarfarehadalsochanged Inearliertimes strictrulesofcombathadapparentlybeenobserved andtherewasastrongfeelingthat evenifsubjugated othernoblelinesshouldnotbeextinguished Throughthisemphasisonlegitimacy theweakercentralstatesmayhavesoughttocheckthemenaceoftheperipheralpowers Butnowwarfarebecamemuchlargerinscaleandmoreruthless Conqueredstateswereobliteratedandturnedintocentrallycontrolledprovincesofthevictor Inthefourthandthirdcenturies alltheprincipalstatesfollowedtheleadofCh uinassumingthetitleofkingfortheirrulers thusindicatingthattheynolongerrecognizedeventhetheoryofChousupremacy WhilechariotscontinuedinuseuntilthelateChoucheapironweaponshadledtoagreatincreaseinthesizeoffightingforces Peasantfootsoldiersreplacedthearistocraticcharioteers whohadbeenarmedwithexpensivebronzeweapons asthebackboneofthearmies whichnownumberedinthetensofthousands Anothermilitaryinnovationwastheuseofcavalry Horsebackriding firstdevelopedbythepastoralpeoplesofCentralandWestAsia hadsignificantculturalinfluencesontheChinesewhollyasidefromitsmilitaryimpact ThegreatermobilitymadepossiblebyhorsebackridingspeededupcommunicationsbetweentheagriculturalcivilizationsofWestandEastAsia ThismayaccountforthemorerapidflowatthistimeofWesterninventionsandideastoChina thushelpingtoclosethetechnologicalgapthathadonceexisted Eveninthefieldofthevisualarts forexample theWesternemphasisonportrayalinsilhouette astransmittedbytheintermediarynomads cametoreplacetheoldShangapproachtodesign TheuseofthehorsemadethepastoralnorthernneighborsChinaagreatermilitarythreatthantheyhadbeenbefore OneresultofthiswastheerectionbythenorthernChinesestatesoflongwalls whichwhenlaterunifiedbecametheGreatWallofChina AnotherresultwasthereplacementofchariotsbycavalryinChinesearmies Thischangewasperhapshastenedbytheintroductionofthecrossbow probablyalocalinvention which togetherwiththeoldnativecompositebow madethecavalryaformidableforce Stillanotherresultofhorsebackridingwastheintroductionofclose fittingjacketsandtrousers whichweremoreconvenientthanthefullsleevesandflowingrobbersofthetraditionalgarb TheChinesethusstartedontheirwayTobecomingthefirstgreatagriculturalpeopletoclothebothmenandwomenintrousers Mountedarcherdesigninsilhouette stampedonalateChoutile 3 1 5TheSearchforPoliticalStability ThestatesoftheEasternChouperiod inthefaceoffadingChouauthorityandthegrowingferocityofwarfare mademanyeffortstominimizefightingandstabilizethepoliticalsituation Bilateralormultilateralinterstateconferenceswereheldwithconsiderablefrequency disarmamentproposalswerediscussed treatiesweresignedandallianceformed Marriagesbetweenprincelylineswereanimportantmeansofstrengtheningalliances whilehostageswerewidelyusedtoinsuretheloyaltyofasatellitestate Thesemi barbarian stateofCh uinthesouthposedaspecialthreattothestatesoftheNorthChinaPlain andtheyfrequentlyleaguedtogetheragainstCh u Thisleaguefirsttookeffectiveshapein651 whenDukeHuanofCh iwasrecognizedashegemonoftheconfederation Thesystemofhegemony however gaveChinaonlybriefandsporadicstability lastingnolongerthanthelifetimeofeachstrongmanwhowasabletoestablishhimselfashegemon AfterDuckHuan thenexttoachievethisstatuswasthedukeofChinin632 TheoriginalpurposeofthesystemwascompletelylostwhenthekingofCh ubecamethethirdhegemonbeforetheturnofthecentury AttimeduringthesixthcenturyB C somestabilitywasachievedthroughaformalizedbalanceofpowerbetweenChininthenorthandCh uinthesouth WumeanwhilehadbeenrisingrapidlyonCh ueasternfrontierandin482wonrecognitionastheparamountmilitarypowerofChina onlytobecrushedandannexedin473byYueh themost barbarian ofallthestates TherewerenofurtherattemptstoorganizeaninterestorderinancientChina Bruteconquesthadbecometheorderoftheday AfterthebreakupofChinin453B C thechiefcontendersforsupremacywereCh iintheeast Chininthewest andCh uinthesouth Ch uexterminatedYuehin334andthesmallcentralstateofLuin249 Ch i survivingausurpationofthethrone annexedthecentralstateofSungin286 andCh incalmlyexterminatedChouitselfin256 Finally inaseriesofgreatcampaignsbetween230and221B C Ch inconqueredalltheremainingindependentstates unifyingChinaforthefirsttimeandopeninganewphaseinitshistory 3 2TheageofthePhilosophersandtheClassics 3 2 1TheEarlyPhilosophersTheEasternChouwasaperiodofgreateconomicgrowth socialchange andpoliticaldevelopment Thefailureofoldauthority bothtemporalandspiritual aswellasthecurrentinnovations posednewproblems Time worntraditionshadtobediscardedandnewguidingvaluesfound Men smindscouldwanderatwillanddidrangemorefreelythaneveragaininEastAsianhistory OneisstruckbytheparallelintimebetweenthisintellectualoutburstinChinaandtheheydayoftheGreekphilosophers theHebraicprophets andthehistoricalBuddhaandotherearlyreligiousleadersinIndia Throughoutthewholecivilizedworlditwasatimeofprodigiousphilosophicalactivity Onereasonforthismayhavebeenmutualintellectualstimulationbetweenthegreatcentersofcivilizationinthisageofacceleratedcommunications Anothermayhavebeenthatalltheseareashadbythistimebecomewealthyenoughtosupportlargenumbersofthinkers Moreover theincreasedpaceofhumaninventionwasshatteringtraditionalpointsofview andthereforemeneverywherewerebeginningconsciouslytograpplewiththefundamentalproblemsofthemeaningandpurposeoflifeandsociety Thechallengewasthesame buttheanswersvariedgreatly settingthecivilizationsoftheMediterranean SouthAsia andEastAsiaoffindecidedlydifferentdirections Thecontrastingphilosophicalattitudesdevelopedduringthisgreatageofintellectualfermentstillstandoutamongthefactorsthatdifferentiatethesemajorculturalzones Chinesephilosophicalinterestfromthistimeoncenteredprimarilyonmanasasocialandpoliticalanimal Itwasoverwhelmingly humanistic orperhapsoneshouldsay social becausetheemphasiswasmoreonsocietythanontheindividual ThiswasinsharpcontrasttotheemphasisonthedivineandotherworldlyinthetraditionalphilosophiesofIndiaandtheMediterraneanworld ItisdifficulttodeterminewhyChinesethoughttookthisparticulardirection PossiblypoliticalandsocialproblemposedthemselvesmorevividlytoChinesemindsbecausetheinterstateanarchyoftheChouperiodexistedwithinasinglelargeculturalunit TheearlyChinesephilosophers inanycase werefirstofpracticalpoliticians Theywerepartofthenewclassofbureaucrats producedbythespreadofliteracyandtheneedsofanincreasinglycomplexpoliticalsystem Suchmenoftenwanderedformstatetostate offeringtheirserviceswheretheywouldbemoreappreciated Greatthinkersamongthem whethersuccessfulornotaspracticalpoliticians attractedfollowersandthusbecameteacher Theirdisciplesgraduallyformedintoschoolsofphilosophy andfromtheseschoolsthesayingsoftheoriginalmasters asreworkedandsupplementedbymanylaterhands eventuallyemergedasthephilosophicalbooksofChoutimes 3 2 2Theclassics Althoughthephilosopherswereoftendaringinnovators manyofthemlookedtosupposedlygoldenagesofthepastfortheirinspiration ashavemanyotherthinkerselsewhereintheworld Inacivilizationhistory particularlyconcernedwithproblemsofsociety itwasnaturalthathistory astherepositoryofhumanexperience shouldbecamethespecialfocusofattention Thisinterestinthepast togetherwiththepeculiarChineserespectforthewrittenword producedatremendousvenerationforthewritingofearliertimes This ofcourse hasbeenacommontraitthroughouttheworld butitseemstohavebeenparticularlystrongamongtheChinese ConfuciusandotherancientChinesephilosopherslookeduponthewritingsofearlieragesasclassicsfromwhichtheydrewtheirownteachings andthisideapersistedinEastAsiauntilrecenttimes ForovertwothousandyearsChinesescholars whenfacedwithnewproblem triedtowringtheanswersfromreinterpretationsoftheclassics TotheChinese withtheirloveoforderandclassification theClassics isnotjustavaguetermforancientliteratureingeneralbutmeansaclearlyspecifiedsetofbooksassociatedwiththedominantConfuciantradition Theseworks togetherwiththevastbodyofcommentariesthathasgrownuparoundthem constitutethefirstofthetraditionalfourdivisionsofChineseliterature ThevariouslistingoftheClassicswereallmadeaft