心理学专业外语翻译第18页.doc

Gender bias in psychological theory and researchEXAMPLES OF GENDER BIAS IN PSYCHOLOGYMoral development - Kohlberg applied his stages of moral development derived from male subjects, to female subjects, and concluded that latter reached lower levels. Gilligan(1982) has suggested that female morality is based on different priorities.Interpersonal relationships - the research focus on brief acquaintances rather than long term kin relationships may reflect a male bias.Childcare - Bowlbys research on maternal deprivation implied that women needed to stay at home and care for the children.Socialisation - many psychoanalytically orientated psychologists proposed gender biased views on women. Freud argued that women fall victim to envy for a penis, which will leave ineradicable traces on their development and the formation of their character such as the physical vanity of women, since they are bound to value their charms more highly as a late compensation for their original sexual inferiority (Freud, 1933a). Erickson proposed women were destined to bear and take care of the offspring of men.Theoretical biasHare-Mustin and Maracek(1990) distinguish between alpha and beta bias in theories:心理学理论及心理学研究中的性别偏见心理学中性别偏见举例道德发展Kohlber将其来源于男性被试主体的道德发展阶段理论应用于女性，从而得出女性只达到道德标准的较低水平的结论。Gilligan(1982)在此之前就已提出女性道德基于不同优先级。人际关系将研究的重点集中在短期人脉而非有渊源的血亲关系，可能反应出男性的偏见。儿童照料Bowlby的母爱剥夺实验暗示女性要育儿持家。社会化许多从精神分析角度定位的心理学家对女性有性别歧视的态度。Freud认为女性成为阳具崇拜的受害者，这将对女性发展及性格形成留下不可磨灭的痕迹，如身体空虚的女性将把对迷人风韵的看重作为女性原始性别自卑的后期补偿(Freud, 1933a)。Erickson表明，女性注定要担负生育并且照看后代的责任。理论偏见Hare-Mustin and Maracek(1990)区分理论中的与偏见 Alpha bias exaggerates differences between men and women, serving to reinforce gender stereotypes. Beta bias minimises real differences between men and women, causing important parts of womens life experiences to be ignored.These biases exist because androcentric(male biased) views are used as the standard or norm to explain the psychological experiences of both sexes. If women show different behaviour from the male norm, it is seen as inferior, and what does not concern the androcentric world view is not investigated.REPORTING BIAS Interpretation of resultsResults that show gender differences may be reported in a way that emphasises female stereotypes or inferiority, e.g. concluding that women are more fielddependent rather than context aware in visual perception, or have less self-confidence, rather than saying men are over-confident.(Tavris, 1933).Gender differences in results are only average differences-variation in male and female scores means that, for example, some women will be superior to some men. Selection of material to be publishedMale biased editors and reviewers of psychology journals and books may filter out research on women, and studies that report no differences or findings contrary to male opinion(e.g. those that report very little pre-menstrual syndrome in women). 偏见夸大了男女的差异，强化了性别刻板的作用。 偏见极度缩小了男女间的真实差异，导致女性生活中重要的部分被忽略。这些偏见的存在是因为在解释两性心理经验时将男性中心观作为标准或规范。如果女性表现出不同于男性规范的行为，将被视作卑微的表现，并且，不涉及男性中心世界观的就不做调查研究。报告偏见 结果解释关于两性差异的结果可能会以强调女性刻板模式或卑微的方式报告，如包括：女性更倾向场依存而非形象思维中的上下文感知，或者相比之下缺乏自信，而不是说男性超自信(Tavris, 1933)。在结果中显示出的性别差异只是男女得分的平均数的差异-变异，这意味着，例如某些女性将会更优越于某些男性。 对欲发表出版的资料的挑选有男性偏见的编辑和心理学期刊与书籍的审阅者可过滤掉关于女性的研究，及男女平等的报告或有关与男性观点相反的研究，如这些报告很少涉及关于女性经前综合症的问题。 Use of resultsThose studies that report genuine difference between men and women should not be used to discriminate against whichever sex seems weaker, but should be used to support the argument for increased training opportunities.RESEARCHER BIASGender bias in research is likely to be caused by lack of researchersResearcher bias may occur because women are not appointed to, or promoted in, academic positions in male dominated universities.Alternatively, female academics may find themselves marginalised into areas outside mainstream psychology. nature of researchersAndrocentric researchers are likely to propose hypotheses thata investigate stereotypical differences rather than real ones or similarities.b do not investigate important issues to women, such as pregnancy or female harassment and discrimination.c perpetuate biased ideas by, for exanple, searching for causes within women for different or abnormal behaviour (e.g. pre-menstrual syndrome) but in the environment for men (e.g. violent upbringing).METHODOLOGICAL BIASGender bias in the methodology of studies is found in the biased sampling of subjects-many famous studies in psychology (e.g. by Asch, Sherif, Kohlberg, Erikson) only used male subjects and generalised the results to women.研究结果的应用这些研究反映不应该用男性与女性间的真正区别来歧视对抗相对更为弱势的性别，但应用此来支持所增加的培养机会的论证。研究者偏见在研究中的性别偏见可能造成的原因 缺乏研究者研究员偏见可能发生的原因有女性难以在男性主导的高校、学术位置上任职或提升。另外，女性学者可能发现自己被边缘化在主流心理学以外的领域。 研究者特性男性中心的研究者们可能提出的假设a 调查刻板模式的差异，而不是性别间真正的或相似之处。b 关于女性的重要问题不做调查，比如怀孕、性骚扰还有歧视。c 永久偏见观的结果，例如在男性情境下（如暴力的教养）寻找女性不同或不正常行为的原因（如经期综合症）。研究方法的偏见研究方法中的性别歧视 在心理学中许多经典研究的采样偏见是只使用男性科目并将结果普及到女性(e.g. Asch, Sherif, Kohlberg, Erikson的实验)。 the use of male preferred techniques, such as the laboratory experiment with its manipulation and control of subjects. Many feminists prefer less distant and hierarchical techniques, such as inerviews where the emphasis is on personal experience and joint participation. the lack of controls to distinguish differences that are innate from those that are the product of gender socialisation or biased stereotypes (Weisstein 1993).CONSEQUENCES OF GENDER BIASFeminists suggest that although gender differences may be minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power. Judgements about an individual womans ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex role stereotypes, and this also has the effect of lowering womens self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).VALIDITY OF GENDER BIASMaccoby and Jacklin (1974), in a thorough review of the research into sex differences, concluded that in the majority of areas no significant differences were found, and where they were found they were very small. The gender biased views of famous figures in psychology,such as Freud and Bowlby, have been disproved. 使用男性优先的技术方法，如实验室试验中的操作和被试控制主题。很多女性主义者更喜欢近距离分层的方式，比如注重个体经验和共同参与的访问调查。 对区分那些先天的差异和那些由性别角色社会化或刻板观念造成的差异的控制力的缺乏。(Weisstein 1993)。性别偏见的后果女权主义者说明虽然性别差异可能极小或根本不存在，但这种差异却用来