建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文

建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文 文献 资料题目 Advanced Encryption Standard 文献 资料发表 出版 日期 2004 10 25 系系 部 部 建筑工程系建筑工程系 学学 生 生 陆总陆总 LYYLYY 2 外文文献 外文文献 Modern Architecture Modern architecture not to be confused with contemporary architecture is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects architectural educators and exhibits very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century For three decades after the Second World War however it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building 1 Origins Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment a result of social and political revolutions Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron steel concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution In 1796 Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his fireproof design which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines Due to poor knowledge of iron s properties as a construction material a number of early mills collapsed It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam leading to widespread use of iron construction this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain leading to the description Dark satanic mills of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression rather than for purely utilitarian structure include Frank Lloyd Wright s Unity Temple built in 1906 near Chicago and Rudolf Steiner s Second Goetheanum built from 3 1926 near Basel Switzerland Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau Whatever the cause around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents Gothic for instance with new technological possibilities The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago Victor Horta in Brussels Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow among many others can be seen as a common struggle between old and new 2 Modernism as Dominant Style By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology Frank Lloyd Wright s career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio but he refused to be categorized with them Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe however as well as on the whole of organic architecture In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture curated by Philip Johnson Johnson and collaborator Henry Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose and consolidated them into the International Style This was an important turning point With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States to Chicago to the Harvard Graduate School of Design and to Black Mountain College While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single dwelling residential buildings in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre eminent and in the schools for leaders of the profession the only acceptable design solution from about 1932 to about 1984 4 Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple unornamented buildings The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade steel for exterior support and concrete for the floors and interior supports floor plans were functional and logical The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters Le Corbusier Oscar Niemeyer Sir Howard Robertson the Seagram Building Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lever House Skidmore Owings and Merrill all in New York A prominent residential example is the Lovell House Richard Neutra in Los Angeles Detractors of the international style claim that its stark uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising Le Corbusier once described buildings as machines for living but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines Even Philip Johnson admitted he was bored with the box Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs towards more eclectic styles During the middle of the century some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible Mid century modernism or organic modernism was very popular due to its democratic and playful nature Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement which has influenced contemporary modernism Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal sterile elitist and lacked meaning Its approach had become ossified in a style that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text Space Time and Architecture first written in 1941 could begin At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture as in painting a kind of pause even a kind of exhaustion At the Metropolitan Museum of Art a 1961 symposium discussed the question Modern Architecture Death or Metamorphosis In New York the coup d tat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of air rights 1 In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to sever the Park Avenue streetscape and tarnish the reputations of its consortium of architects Walter Gropius Pietro Belluschi and the 5 builders Emery Roth however postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid 1990s a neo modern or hypermodern architecture had once again established international pre eminence As part of this revival much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited refuted and re evaluated and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic 6 中文译文 中文译文 现现 代代 建建 筑筑 现代建筑 不被混淆与 当代建筑 是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点 主要 的简化形式 消除装饰等 虽然风格的设想早在 20 世纪 并大量造就了一些建筑师 建筑 教育家和展品 很少有现代的建筑物 建于 20 世纪上半叶 第二次大战后的三十年 但最 终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设 1 起源起源 一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题 息息相关的工程中的现代性 从而影响了启蒙运动 导致社会和政治革命 另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展 那就是获得新的建筑材料 如 钢铁 混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术 它作为工业革命的一部分 1796 年 shrewsbury 查尔斯 bage 首先用他的 火 的设计 后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板 这些 建设大大加强了结构 使它们能够容纳更大的机器 由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏 一些 早期建筑失败 直到 1830 年初 伊顿 Hodgkinson 预计推出了型钢梁 导致广泛使用钢架 建设 工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌 英国北部领导的描述 黑暗魔鬼作坊 的地 方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡 水晶宫由约瑟夫 paxton 的重大展览 1851 年 是一个早期的 例子 钢铁及玻璃 施工 可能是一个最好的例子 就是 1890 年由 William 乐男爵 延长和 路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼 早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的 建筑表达 而非纯粹功利结构 包括建于 1906 年在芝加哥附近 劳埃德赖特的统一宫 建 于 1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂 但无论原因为何 约有 1900 多位建筑师 在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法 将传统 的先例 比如哥特式 与新的技术相结合的可能性 路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作 维克多 奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔 安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那 奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景 mackintosh 格拉斯哥 在维也纳 其中之一 可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争 2 现代主义风格现代主义风格 由 1920 年代的最重要人物 在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声 三个是公认的柯布西耶 7 在法国 密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国 密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董 事的包豪斯 其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术 赖特的建筑生涯中 也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术 特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合 但他拒 绝被归类与他们 赖特与格罗皮乌斯和 Van der 德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响 在 1932 年来到的重要 moma 展览 是现代建筑艺术的国际展览 艺术家菲利普约翰逊 约翰逊和合作者亨利 罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势 内容相似 有一个共同的目的 巩固了他们融入国际化风格 这是一个重要的转折点 在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国 芝加哥 到哈佛 大学设计黑山书院 当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼 在成为现代卓越的 体制和商业建筑 是学校 专业领导 的唯一可接受的 设计解决方案 从约 1932 年至约 1984 年 那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物 最常用的 材料是玻璃外墙 钢结构支持