自考-00832-英语词汇学-笔记(根据考纲标记重点)

1 EnglishEnglish Lexicology Lexicology 英语词汇学英语词汇学 LexicologyLexicology 词汇学 词汇学 is a branch of linguistics inquiring into the origins and meanings of words TheThe NatureNature andand ScopeScope ofof EnglishEnglish lexicologylexicology English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents their semantic structures relations historical development formation and usages TheThe subjectssubjects thatthat EnglishEnglish LexicologyLexicology correlatedcorrelated withwith andand extentextent toto English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology 形态学 semantics 语义学 etymology 词源学 stylistics 文体论 and lexicography 词典学 TheThe reasonreason forfor a a studentstudent toto studystudy EnglishEnglish lexicologylexicology According to the textbook English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word meaning and enable them to organize classify and store words more effectively The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem solving ability and efficiency of individual study ChapterChapter 1 Basic1 Basic conceptsconcepts ofof wordswords andand vocabularyvocabulary WordWord 词的定义 词的定义 A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 1 a minimal free form of a language 2 a sound unity 3 a unit of meaning 4 a form that can function alone in a sentence SoundSound andand meaningmeaning 声音与意义 声音与意义 almost arbitrary no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself SoundSound andand formform 读音和形式 读音和形式 不统一的四个原因 1 the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans which does not have a separate letter to represent each other 2 the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years 3 some of the difference were creates by the early scribes 4 the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary VocabularyVocabulary 词汇 词汇 all the words in a language make up its vocabulary ClassificationClassification ofof EnglishEnglish WordsWords ByBy useuse frequency basicfrequency basic wordword stock nonbasicstock nonbasic vocabularyvocabulary ByBy notion contentnotion content words functionalwords functional wordswords ByBy origin nativeorigin native words borrowedwords borrowed wordswords TheThe basicbasic wordword stockstock 基本词汇 基本词汇 is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV it is the most 2 important part of vocabulary TheThe FundamentalFundamental FeaturesFeatures ofof thethe BasicBasic WordWord Stock Stock 基本词汇的特征基本词汇的特征 1 All National character 全民通用性 most important 2 Stability 相 对稳定性 3 Productivity 多产性 4 Polysemy 多义性 5 Collocability 可搭 配性 没有上述特征的没有上述特征的 words words 1 Terminology 术语 2 Jargon 行话 3 slang 俚语 4 Argot 暗语 5 Dialectal words 方言 6 Archaisms 古语 7 Neologisms 新词语 Neologisms means newly created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meanings email ContentContent words notionalwords notional wordswords 实词实词 cloud run walk never five frequently andand functionalfunctional words emptywords empty wordswords 虚词虚词 on of and be but NativeNative WordsWords andand BorrowedBorrowed WordsWords NativeNative wordswords 本族语词 本族语词 known as Anglo Saxon words 50 000 60 000 are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes mainstream of the basic word stocks Two other features 1 neutral in style 2 frequent in use BorrowedBorrowed words Loanwords Loan wordswords 外来语词 外来语词 words taken over from foreign languages 80 of modern EV 4 4 TypesTypes ofof loanloan words words 1 denizens 同化词 shirt from skyrta ON 2 aliens 非同化词 外来词 are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling kowtow CH 磕头 3 translation loans 译借词 按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see from China 4 semantic loans 借义词 they are not borrowed with reference to the form but their meanings are borrowed ChapterChapter 2 2 thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe EnglishEnglish VocabularyVocabulary TheThe Indo EuropeanIndo European LanguageLanguage Family Family 印欧语系印欧语系 The Eight Groups in Indo European Family of Languages 8 大印欧语群 The Eastern set 1 The Balto slavic Group 波罗的 斯拉夫语族 Russian Bulgarian Polish Czech etc 2 The Indo Iranian Group 印度 伊朗语族 Hindi Bengali Persian etc 3 The Armenian Group 亚美尼亚语族 Armenian 4 The Albanian Group 阿尔巴尼亚语族 Albanian The Western set 5 The Hellenic Group 古希腊语族 Greek 6 The Italian Group 意大利语族 Latin Romance languages French Italian Spanish portuguese Romanian etc 7 The Celtic Group 凯尔特语族 Irish Welsh Breton etc 8 The Germanic Group 日耳曼语族 Flemish German Dutch Scandinavian Norweigian Swedish Danish Icelandic etc TheThe ThreeThree StagesStages ofof DevelopmentDevelopment ofof thethe EnglishEnglish Vocabulary Vocabulary 1 Old English 450 1100 vocabulary 50 000 to 60 000 was I high inflected language 2 Middle English 1150 1500 retaines much fewer inflections 3 3 Modern English 1500 up to now in fact more than 25 of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages In Modern E words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections English has evolved from a synthetic language Old English to the present analytic language ModesModes ofof VocabularyVocabulary Development Development 词汇的发展模式词汇的发展模式 1 creation 创造新词 the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely toots affixes and other elements 最重要方式 2 semantic change 旧词新义 does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words 3 borrowing 借用外来词 constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant ChapterChapter 3 3 WordWord FormationFormation I I Morpheme Morpheme 词素词素 the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph Allomorph 词素变体词素变体 is a different variant form of a morpheme differ in phonological and spelling form but at the same in function and meaning TypeType ofof Morpheme Morpheme 词素的分类词素的分类 1 Free Morphemes 自由词素 have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself independent 2 Bound Morpheme 粘着语素 A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself Bound Morpheme includes two types 1 bound root 粘附词根 2 Affix 词缀 Affixes can be put into two groups 1 Inflectional affixes 屈折词缀 affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional thus known as inflectional morphemes 2 Derivational affixes 派生词缀 A prefix A prefix comes before words B suffix An adjective suffix 形容词后缀 that is added to the stem whatever class is belongs to the result will be an adjective Free Morpheme free root 自由词根 Morpheme 词素 Bound root prefix bound derivational affix suffix inflectional RootRoot andand stemstem 词根和词干 词根和词干 The differences between root and stem A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme 4 in a word with inflectional morphemes can be further analyzed it sometimes could be a root ChapterChapter 4 4 Word FormationWord Formation II II 构词法构词法 1 Affixation1 Affixation 词缀法词缀法 Derivation 派生法 the formation of words by adding word formaing or derivational affixes to stem 1 Prefixation 前缀法 It s the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems 1 Negative prefixes 否定前缀 un non in dis a il ir im etc disobey not obey 2 Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀 un de dis etc unwrap open 3 Pejorative prefixes mis 贬义前缀 mis mal pseudo etc misconduct bad behaviour 4 Prefixes of degree or size 程度前缀 arch extra hyper macro micro mini out over sub super sur ultra under ect overweight 5 Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀 contra counter anti pro etc anti nuclear 6 Locative prefixes 方位前缀 extra fore inter intra tele trans etc extraordinary more than ordinary 7 Prefixes of time and order 时间和顺序前缀 fore pre post ex re etc monorail one rail 8 Number prefixes 数字前缀 uni mono bi di tri multi poly semi etc bilingual concerning two languages 9 Miscellaneous prefixes 混杂前缀 auto neo pan vice vice chairman deputy chairman 2 Suffixation 后缀法 It s the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems 1 noun suffixes 2 adjective suffixes 3 Adverb suffixes 4 verb suffixes 2 Compounding2 Compounding 复合法复合法 alsoalso calledcalled compositioncomposition Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are written in three ways solid 连写 airmail hyphenated 带连字符 air conditioning and open 分开写 air force air raid Formation of compounds 复合词的形式 1 noun compounds e g air plane airplane flower pot flower pot 2 adjective compounds e g acid head acid head 3 verb compounds e g house keep housekeep 3 Conversion3 Conversion 转类法转类法 Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class 功能转换 又叫零派生 functional shift zero 5 derivation 4 Blending4 Blending 拼缀法拼缀法 Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word e g motor hotel motel smoke fog smog formula translation FORTRAN 5 Clipping5 Clipping 截短法截短法 Clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead e g plane from airplane phone from telephone 四种形式 1 Front clippings 删节前面 phone from telephone 2 Back clippings 删节后面 dorm from dormitory 3 Front and back clippings 前后删节 flu from influenza 4 Phrase clippings 短语删节 pop from popular music 6 Acronymy6 Acronymy 首字母缩写法首字母缩写法 Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms 1 Initialism 首字母缩写词法 initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter e g BBC for British Broadcasting corporation 2 Acronym 首字母拼音法 Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word E g TEFL teaching English as a foreign language 7 Back formation7 Back formation 逆生法 逆构词 逆生法 逆构词 Back formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation It s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes greed from greedy 8 Words8 Words FromFrom ProperProper Name Name 专有名词转成法专有名词转成法 Names of people places book and tradenames e g sir watt siemens 人名 watt 瓦特 电功率单位 ChapterChapter 5 5 WordWord MeaningMeaning TheThe meaningsmeanings ofof Meaning Meaning 意义 的意义 ReferenceReference 所指 It is the relationship between language and the word It is the arbitrary and conventional It is a kind of abstraction yet with the help of context it can refer to something specific ConceptConcept 概念 which is beyond language is the result of human cognition 认识 reflecting the objective world in the human mind SenseSense 意义 It denotes the relationship inside the language The 6 sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language MotivationMotivation 理据 It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning 1 Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据 words whose sounds suggest their meaning for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning E g bang ping pong ha ha 2 Morphological motivation 形态理据 multi morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines E g airmail miniskirt 例外 black market ect 3 Semantic motivation 词义理据 refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word E g the foot of the mountain foot 4 Etymological motivation 词源理据 the history of the word explains the meaning of the word E g pen feather TypesTypes ofof meaning meaning 词义的类别词义的类别 1 Grammatical Meaning 语法意义 indicates the grammatical concept or relationships becomes important only in actual context 2 Lexical Meaning 词汇意义 Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning Lexical meaning has 2 components 内容 Conceptual meaning 概念意义 and associative meaning 关联意义 1 Conceptual meaning 概念意义 also known as denotative meaning 外 延意义 is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning 2 Associative meaning 关联意义 is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning 4types 1 Connotative 内涵意义 the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning traditionally known as connotations 例如 母亲 经常与 爱 关心 温柔 联系起来 2 Stylistic 文体意义 many words have stylistic features which make them appropriate for different contexts 3 Affective 感情意义 indicates the speaker s attitude towards the person or thing in question 这种情感价值观分两类 褒义和贬义 appreciative pejorative 4 Collocative 搭配意义 is the part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion ChapterChapter 6 6 Sense Sense relationrelation andand semanticsemantic fieldfield 语义关系和语义场 PolysemyPolysemy 多义关系 7 Two approached to polysemy 多义关系的两种研究方法 1 diachronic approach 历时方法 from the diachronic point of view polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word First meaning is the primary meaning the later meanings are called derived meanings 2 synchronic approach 共时方法 synchronically polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time 基本意义是 central meaning 次要意 义是 derived meaning Two processes of development 词义的两种发展类型 1 radiation 辐射型 is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes e g face neck 2 concatenation 连锁型 is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning e g treacle 3 In radiation each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning In concatenation each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original there is no direct connection in between 4 They are closely related being different stages of the development leading to polysemy Generally radiation precedes concatenation In many cases the two processes work together complementing each other HomonymyHomonymy 同形同音异义关系 words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling TypesTypes ofof homonyms homonyms 同音同形异义关系的类别同音同形异义关系的类别 1 Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形异义词 words identical both in sound and spelling but different in meaning 2 Homographs 同形异义词 words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning 最多最常见 3 Homophones 同音异义词 words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning OriginsOrigins ofof homonymshomonyms 同形同音异义词的来源同形同音异义词的来源 1 change in sound and spelling eare ear lang long langian long 2 borrowing feria fair beallu ball baller ball 3 Shortening 缩略 ad advertisement The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes 同音同形异义词和多义 8 词的区别 1 The fundamental difference Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings 2 One important criterion is to see their etymology 词源 Homonymys are from different sources Polysemant is from the same source 3 The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness 语义关联 The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another In dictionaries a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries Rhetoric features of homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特色 As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling particularly homophones they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of say humor sarcasm or ridicule SynonymySynonymy 同义关系 one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning Types of Synonymy 同义词的类别 1 Absolute synonyms 完全同义词 also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects i e both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning including conceptual and associative meanings Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology 2 relative synonyms 相对同义词 also called near synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality e g change alter vary stagger reel totter strange odd queer idle lazy indolent Sources of synonyms 同义词的来源 1 Borrowing 借词 最重要的来源 room chamber foe enemy help aid leave depart wise sage buy purchase 2 Dialects and regional English 方言和地区英语 3 Figurative and euphemistic use of words 单词的修饰和委婉用法 occupation profession walk of life dreamer star gazer drunk elevated lie distort of fact 4 Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习惯表达一致 win gain the upper hand decide make up one s mind finish get through hesitate be in two minds help lend one a hand DiscriminationDiscrimination ofof SynonymsSynonyms 1 difference in denotation 外延不同 Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning rich wealthy work toil want wish 9 desire 2 difference in connotation