说明文的写作

说明文的写作说明文的写作 一 提纲式作文写作指导一 提纲式作文写作指导 1 提纲式作文例子提纲式作文例子 The Cooperation 1 合作的含义 2 合作在工作中的重要性 3 怎样培养合作能力 2 提纲式作文写作指导 提纲式作文写作指导 一般地 所给的段首句或提纲就是该段的主题句 1 要仔细斟酌该句所包含的信息 找出句中的关键词 写好主题句 2 将该句发展成一个段落 通过举例 说明 推理等发展主题句 3 注意句子之间的衔接 段落之间要过渡自然 前后照应 通过恰当使用承转词 各段要分别起到 启 转 承 合的作用 使文章结构完整 条理清楚 思想连贯 二 段首句作文二 段首句作文 Private Cars in Large Cities 1 Today people s living standard is improving rapidly 2 There are some advantages and disadvantages 3 In a word if conditions permit 写作指导 写作指导 段首句作文 段首句作文 要求续写所给的句子和段落 必须与段首句联成一体 形式上互相统一 语气上一气 呵成 否则会扣题不紧 脱离题目设计者的意图 因此 必须遵循以下步骤 3 图表式作文图表式作文 Write a composition of about 120 words to compare the features of the bus and the train as vehicles FeaturesBusTrain NoiseLouderLower SafetyMore accidentsFewer accidents ConvenienceLess convenientMore convenient CostExpensiveCheap ComfortLess comfortableMore comfortable SpeedFastFaster Time and routeFlexibleLess flexible 写作指导 写作指导 此类写作一般分为三部分 1 对图表显示的数据加以概括说明 2 分析造成此中情况或变化的原因 3 进行总结或预测 探讨应采取的措施 注意 注意 不要照搬数据 应加入自己的理解 找出规律性或看趋势 说明文说明文 Exposition 1 定义 说明文是用说明的表达方式来解说事物 阐明事理的文章 以解释 阐述事物的形状 特征 性质 成因 关系 功能 作用为目的 而说明是对事物的发生 发展 结果 特征 性质 状态 功能 等进行解释 介绍 阐述的一种基本表达方式 2 分类 可用于事物说明的写作手法很多 鉴于六级写作的趋势 这里着重介绍四种类型的说明文 1 举例说明文 通过举例或列举阐明事理的写作方法 为使读者弄清某一事理 或使抽象化概念形象化或具体化 作者拿出文章的较大篇幅 进行举例说明 以进一步证明所述道理的真实性和可行性 2 知识性说明文 通过解释说明来阐明事实 道理或介绍知识 信息等的写作手法 从整篇文章看 此类作文旨在为 读者提供并未知晓的知识和信息 读者通过阅读此类文章通达事理 懂得该怎么办 3 对比说明文 通过对两种事物进行对比或比较 找出两者之间的共同点或对立点的写作手法 为说明某一事物在 不同条件下的差异 或此事物与同类或不同类事物的差别 作者往往采用比较和对比的手法来获得 分清事理的写作效果 读者从比较或对比说明中获得教益 4 定义说明文 通过揭示概念的内涵或下定义的方式来明确概念的写作方法 旨在给事物的性质和特点下定义 回 答 什么是 和 怎样理解 之类的问题 故此 这类作文要求作者具备科学严谨的文风 定 义要下得准确合理 文字说明要全面到位 作者常常会借助举例说明的手法或比较说明的手法达到 界定事物的目的 在实际写作中 作者一般在同一篇文章中运用多种手法达到说明事物的写作目的 运用单一手段者 甚少 二 英语说明文的语言特点二 英语说明文的语言特点 与英语记叙文和英语描述文相比 英语说明文的语言特征并不那么明显 但尽管如此 也还是有 一些语言现象在英语说明文中经常出现 1 时态相对较为统一 多用现在时态 由于说明文往往是对客观事物或事理的一种介绍与解释 而这种客观的介绍与解释一般是不随时间 和空间变化而改变的 比如 说明早锻炼的好处 介绍猫的胡子的功能 解释臭氧层对人类生活的 影响等等 是不受时间和空间影响的 因此 尽管有时为了特殊表达的要求 会在个别地方采用其 他时态 英语说明文的基本时态还是一般现在时 下面这篇由香港学生写的作文充分反映了说明文 的这一特点 The Way to Achieve Success Many successful people say that they owe much of their success to the cultivation of certain good habits in early life In forming good habits I think we should pay attention to four things that is honesty industry 勤 勉 enthusiasm and thrift 节俭 Honesty is the best policy This is a proverb to which we must pay attention There are so many temptations 诱惑 in society that through a little carelessness we may go astray 走入歧途 But when we are honest people will not be dishonest to us Industry gives every man and woman every boy and girl proper work to do To do nothing is to ruin oneself Enthusiasm is a great force One s soul will expand if one devotes oneself to a noble cause The difficulties in our way are tremendous but what can we not accomplish if with enthusiasm There are many proverbs which set forth the advantages of thrift Since we live in a world where money is a very powerful thing we should always try to save part of our earnings for future use These are the four things to which we must pay attention It is only in this way that we can achieve success 2 采用客观表述 避免主观色彩 由于在很多情况下 说明文是对客观存在的说明与介绍 因此语言的表述也应该尽可能地给人以客 观可信的感觉 比如 1 I think that getting up late is not always a bad thing 2 It is said that getting up late is not always a bad thing 相比之下 例 2 的语言要比例 1 的语言客观一些 容易让人接受一些 如果再作一些表述上的改动 3 Getting up late is not always a bad thing according to Franklin Smith a well known psychologist in Stanford University 引进著名人士作为信息的来源 可以使想要说明的内容更具有说服力 如果我们将例 3 中的 always 再改为 necessarily 就可使整个句子更客观 委婉 便于为读者接受 4 Getting up late is not necessarily a bad thing according to Franklin Smith a well known psychologist in Stanford University 在英语中 采用被动语态 引进权威的信息来源以及选用委婉的词语是使说明文避免主观色彩 增 加客观性 从而为读者接受的重要语言手段 三 英语说明文的写作方法三 英语说明文的写作方法 就 说明对象 而言 英语说明文可分为对 客观具体事物 的说明和对 主观抽象观念 的说明两大类 比如 对 LASER 激光 Computer Problem of Year 2000 计算机2000年问题 等等的说明都是对客 观或者具体事物的说明 而 The Successful Interview 谈成功的面试 How to Write Good English Composition 如何才能写好英语作文 等是对主观抽象观念的说明 对我们中学生朋友来说 在汉语 说明文的教学中似乎比较侧重前者 即解释客观具体事物的说明文 但在英语说明文中 阐述和说 明 主观抽象观念 的说明文占了很大的比重 其中有些类似汉语中的议论文 但是无论是对 客观具 体事物 的说明还是对 主观抽象观念 的阐述 英语说明文从结构上看大致可分为三个部分 第一部 分一般是文章的第一段 提出文章的主题 也就是说 文章想要阐述 说明的主要内容 第二部分 是文章的主体 可由若干个段落组成 对文章的主题进行展开说明 第三部分是结尾段 对文章的 主题作归纳总结 从英语说明文的结构可以看出 要写好英语说明文的关键在于第二部分如何对文 章主题进行展开说明 在英语中 常见的用来展开文章主题的方法有下列几种 1 罗列法 罗列法 listing 在文章开始时提出需要说明的东西和观点 然后常用 first second and finally 加以罗列说明 罗 列法广泛地使用于各类指导性的说明文之中 下面这篇学生作文就是用罗列法写成的 Early Rising Early rising 早起 is helpful in more than one way First it helps to keep us fit We all need fresh air But air is never so fresh as early in the morning Besides we can do good to our health from doing morning exercise Secondly early rising helps us in our studies We learn more quickly in the morning and find it easier to remember what we learn in the morning Thirdly early rising enables us to plan the work of the day We cannot work well without a good plan Just as the plan for the year should be made in the spring so the plan for the day should be made in the morning Fourthly early rising gives us enough time to get ready for our work such as to wash our faces and hands and eat our breakfast properly Late risers may find it very difficult to form the habit of early rising They ought to make special efforts to do so As the English proverb says Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy wealthy and wise 罗列法经常用下列句式展开段落 我们可以注意模仿学习 There are several good reasons why we should learn a foreign language First of all Secondly And finally We should try our best to plant more trees for several good reasons First of all Secondly And finally 必须指出的是 有时罗列法并不一定有明确的 first second 等词 但文章还是以罗列展开的 2 举例法 举例法 examples 举例法是用具体的例子来说明我们要表达的意思 常用 for example for instance still another example is 等词语引出 下面这篇学生作文就是用举例法写成的 Recreation It is impossible to keep in good health unless we take enough recreation The mind too needs change to make it fresh and vigorous There is much truth in the old saying All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy There are many games which boys and girls can play after their school work is done for instance football tennis and kite flying Other examples of recreation are boating fishing gardening cycling walking chess playing and reading Persons who sit much at their business should take a kind of recreation that will supply their muscles with exercise Those who spend most of their time in the open air and do manual work should adopt reading or some other quiet form of recreation Cycling is said to be an important means of recreation but many persons foolishly tire out themselves by cycling too much The same may be said in regard to football Tennis is a pleasant form of recreation Many persons take great delight in boating Fishing requires much patience and there is much danger of taking cold by sitting still on a cold day too long A good brisk 轻松 walk is one of the finest forms of exercise For persons engaged in outdoor labor chess playing is another excellent form of recreation 可以看出 举例法和罗列法有时可以结合使用 即用罗列法来列出例子 用例子充实罗列的说明 3 比较法 比较法 comparison and contrast 比较法是对两个对象进行比较 从而进行说明的写作手法 比较法又可细分为比较相同点 comparison 和比较不同点 contrast 两种方法 比如 From Paragraph to Essay Although they are different in length the paragraph and the essay are quite similar in structure For example the paragraph starts with either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence In the essay the first paragraph sets up the topic focus Next the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence Similarly the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that discuss and support the ideas given in the introductory paragraph Finally a concluding sentence whether a restatement conclusion or observation ends the paragraph The essay too has a concluding paragraph which ends the essay logically and satisfactorily Although there are some exceptions most well written expository 说明文的 paragraphs and essays are similar in structure 可以看出 在比较相同点的时候 常用到 similarly also too in the same case in spite of the difference 等这样的词语 European Football and American Football Although European football is the parent of American football the two games show several major differences European football sometimes called association football or soccer is played in 80 countries making it the most widely played sport in the world American football on the other hand is popular only in North America the United States and Canada Soccer is played by eleven players with a round ball Football also played by eleven players in somewhat different positions on the field is played with an elongated 拉长的 round ball Soccer has little body contact between players and therefore needs no special protective equipment Football in which players make the greatest use of body contact to stop a running ball carrier and his teammates needs special protective equipment In soccer the ball is advanced toward the goal by kicking it or by butting 顶 it with the head In American football on the other hand the ball is passed from hand to hand or carried in the hands across the opponent s goal These are just a few of the features which distinguish association and American football 这是一篇用比较不同点的手法写的说明文 从文章中可以看出 however on the other hand in contrast but nevertheless 等表示转折的词语常用来引导对不同点的比较 4 定义法 定义法 definition 定义法也是英语说明文中常用的写作手法 特别是在对具体事物概念进行说明时经常使用 定义法 的基本要素是定义句 英语中常见定义句的模式是 被定义对象 is 所属类别 限制性定语 可以看出 定义句中限制性定语越详细 定义就越精确 比如 A bat is a small mouse like animal that flies at night and feeds on 以 为食品 fruit and insects but is not a bird 其实 在英 英词典中 对英语单词的英文解释就是定义法的典型例子 比如 看看 Longman 词典 对 student 和 teacher 的定义是很有意思的 A student is a person who is studying at a place of education or training A teacher is a person who gives knowledge or skill to sb as a profession 专业 5 顺序法 顺序法 sequence of time space and process 顺序法是指按时间 空间或过程的顺序进行说明的一种写作手法 比如按照时间顺序介绍一个科学 家的生平 用空间顺序阐述逐渐开发西部的重要意义 用过程顺序法解释葡萄酒的生产过程等等 下面这篇学生作文就是用顺序法写成的 Coal Coal underwent 经受 many changes before it became the bright brittle 脆的 black substance which we now use During ancient times 在上古时代 when the earth enjoyed a very warm and wet climate the land was covered with large forests and big plants As time went on the ground changed and began to sink 下沉 a little These very large numbers of trees and vegetables received a deposit 沉淀 of sand and clay This layer of sand and clay pressed upon the layer beneath and prevented it from contact with air These trees and plants received the pres sure and changed its appearance Generations after generations 几世纪后 as the ground kept gradually sinking another layer of sand and clay was again deposited 积聚 above the layers already formed A great pressure was thus exerted 作用 and the peat 泥煤 was changed into the black and brittle substance which is known as coal Coal is a kind of mineral which is formed by nature as above stated It is an important industrial material and is chiefly used as fuel It is very valuable in the industrial world The place where coal deposit is called a coal mine 煤矿 In China coal mines are largely found in the north west part of the country Shanxi is a famous province for producing coal It has the most coal of China 6 分类法 分类法 classification 分类法是将写作对象进行分类说明的一种写作手法 比如 著名的英国哲学家弗朗西斯 培根 Francis Bacon 在其脍炙人口的 谈读书 Of Studies 一文中就用到了分类法 Some books are to be tasted others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested that is some books are to be read only in parts others to be read but not curiously and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention Some books also may be read by deputy and extracts made of them by others but that would be only in the less important arguments and the meaner sort of books 参考译文 书有可浅尝者 有可吞食者 少数则须咀嚼消化 换言之 有只须读其部分者 有只须 大体涉猎者 少数则须全读 读时须全神贯注 孜孜不倦 书亦可请人代读 取其所需摘要 但只 限题材较次或价值不高者 转摘自 英汉翻译教程 张培基等 可见 如果能够根据具体情况 选用合适的写作手法 就可为文章增添无穷的魅力 除了上述提到的6种展开英语说明文主题的写作方法之外 还有因果法 归纳法等其他方法 但相比 之下对于初学写作的学生来说 上述6种方法是首先值得掌握的 另外必须指出的是 在一篇文章中 往往是以一种写作手法为主 同时辅以其他写作手法 有时 甚至会几种写作手法混用而不分主次 因此 必须根据具体情况 选用合适的展开主题的写作手法 才能写出优秀的英语说明文 四 范文评析 四 范文评析 Sample 1 The Potential of Internet Education Internet is getting into people s life and becoming more and more popular Experts are now working on setting up a national long distance educational system in China to provide educational opportunities via Internet In reality the educational via Internet plan has been taking shape Some universities have already got involved in regional long distance education catching the attention of many educators and computer experts worldwide Others have just connected their campus computers for teaching and research and provided more opportunities for learner The Internet education will be developing dramatically It s estimated that computerized long distance teaching networks will be available by 2010 for postgraduate education vocational programs teachers training and employees training Moreover it will soon cover all the corners of the globe and eventually win the worldwide popularity 评析 这是篇知识性说明文 文章作者按三段式行文 首段概括说明远程教育越来越普及而且专家们正致 力于建立全国互联网教育系统 正文说明我国互联网教育的现状 一些学校正普及区域性的网络教 育 引起全国关注 而另一些学校将教育和科研联网 共同开发 机会多多 潜力巨大 文章最后 展望了互联网教育的前景 到2010年我国将基本建成远程教育系统 从互联网教育的发展趋势我们 可以断定 不久互联网教育将在世界各个角落普及 文章脉络清晰 结构严谨 行文流畅 语义连 贯 顺理成章 Sample 2 Directions For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Good Manners in Different Cultures You should write at least 150 words and base your composition on the outline given in Chinese below i 在许多社交场合一个人举止的好坏显得十分重要 ii 举例对比说明不同文化背景下的良好举止 Good Manners in Different Cultures In most cases of social contact nothing reveals more clearly what kind of person one is than his manners A person with good manners is more welcome anywhere than one of pleasing appearance but with unrefined manners Yet in different cultures there are different manners which it is considered worthwhile to cultivate in social life When you meet a friend on your way for instance it is common sense to say something like Where are you going or Where have you been in the Chinese culture In Western societies by contrast even though both are close friends it is good manners to avoid greeting like that for the first reaction of most English speaking people to such greetings would probably be It s none of your business The same is true of when a person sneezes On that occasion it is taken for granted that some Chinese nearby remarks Someone misses you Or humorously Who is cursing you whereas an American or Englishman would rather like to say God bless you A guest in an Asian house if offered something to drink usually leaves a little to indicate that he has had enough but in England a gust always finishes up a drink to show that he has enjoyed it As for body languages not all of them in one culture convey the same message in another culture In China it is normally seen as signs of affection to touch hug or even kiss a friend s baby In the eyes of western mothers on the other hand such actions can arouse dislike and even hostility from them The cases cited here can serve only as a reminder that one culture s meat may sometimes be another culture s position Sample 3 Directions For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Computer Viruses You should write at least 150 words and base your composition on the outline given in Chinese below 1 目前电脑系统时常受到病毒感染 2 电脑病毒有许多 试举例说出几种 3 我们应千方百计杀毒 Computer Viruses Computer virus whose essence component is a set of instructions is one kind of threat to the security and integrity of computer sys tem Nowadays computer systems worldwide are often infected by computer viruses Some cause the loss of programs and date erase files or subtly alter data Others even crash computers or make them useless In this way each year they cause tens of billions US of losses It s estimated there are about 4500 kinds of computer viruses being unleashed at the rate of about 5 per day How terrible A case in point is Love Bug which proclaims I Love You in the E mail subject line Once the Internet surfer opens the file with I Love You the viruses would copy themselves and destroy valuable computer pictures and video files Another case in point is the CIH which is also very destructive Besides there are also Tedious Concept F and Explore Zip Romeo Juliet to name only a few However it s high time for us to work out effective ways to purge the viruses On the one hand I hope anti bug experts would write out more bug killers such as KV 3000 so as to eliminate the bugs On the other hand we should enhance the cyber law and force the virus writher to stop playing pranks on the computer users so as to let the world be bug free Sample 4 Directions For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Cyber Crimes You should write at least 150 words and base your composition on the outline given in Chinese below 1 网上犯罪的形式很多 如 2 网上犯罪的根源 3 如何打击网上犯罪现象 Cyber Crimes Nowadays cyber criminals seem to be everywhere with a few clicks committing all kinds of cyber crimes To illustrate some commit fraud or lift intellectual property Others subvert deals snatch passwords or disrupt e commerce Still others unleash viruses to crash computers As a result these hackers do a great damage to companies and computer user causing computer losses up to 10 billion dollars per year Naturally there are many causes for the cyber crimes In addition to the wicked nature of the hackers the frailties of Internet partially nourish the crimes Just because there are holes in Internet the complex soft ware is buggy and often infested the cyber vandals can find out the weakness in the Website software programs and by manipulating software glitches gain access to Website committing all kinds of crimes However we shouldn t tolerate these cyber criminals any more And it s high time for us to take all the effective steps to battle the cyber crooks First we should reinforce the cyber laws to protect the Web the powerful engine of economy Besides we should use high techniques to improve intrusion detection encryption and computer security Finally we should train more talented people to build up more firewalls so as to make the Net immune to a