06级四级写作教程.doc

北京化工大学2006级大学英语四级写作教程第一部分 四级写作的评分原则和评分标准1 评分原则首先，CET-4作文题采用总体评分（Global Scoring）方法。阅卷人员就总的印象给出奖励分（Rewarding Scores），而不是按照语言点的错误数目扣分。其次，从内容和语言两个方面对作文进行综合评判。内容和语言是一个统一体，作文应表达题目所规定的内容，而内容要通过语言来表达。要考虑作文是否切题，是否充分表达思想，也要考虑是否用英语清楚而合适地表达思想，也就是要考虑语言上的错误是否造成理解上的障碍。2 评分标准写作满分为15分，分5个等级：2分、5分、8分、11分、14分。各分段具体评分标准如下：2分条理不清，思路紊乱，语言支离破碎或大部分句子均有错误，且多数为严重错误。5分基本切题。表达思想不清楚，连贯性差，有较多的严重语言错误。8分基本切题。有些地方表达思想不够清楚，文字勉强连贯；语言错误相当多，其中有一些是严重错误。11分切题。表达思想清楚，文字连贯，但有少量语言错误。14分切题。表达思想清楚，文字通顺，连贯性较好，基本上无语言错误，仅有个别小错。（注：白卷，作文与题目毫不相关，或只有几个孤立的词而无法表达思想，则给0分。）字数不足应酌情扣分：累计字数110-119100-10990-99 80-8970-7960-6950-5949扣分12345679（注：1如题目中给出主题句，起始句，结束句，均不得计入所写字数。2 规定的内容未写全者，按比例扣分。）第二部分 基本写作步骤1 审题审题是作文的第一步，也是关键的一步。好多考生由于没弄清题意，匆忙下笔，结果离题千里，徒劳无获。审题就是要弄清要求，并根据要求和所给的材料确定主题。从而做到内容切题，思想清晰，结构完整。审题时间大概2-3分钟为宜。2 构思与提纲明确主题后，就要构思如何围绕主题进行写作。如对一篇论说文来说，要考虑支持主题的论据、理由、事例，以及如何衔接、过渡，并将这些内容连缀成篇。构思的成品就是提纲。考场上利用提纲写作，既可加强文章的统一性和连贯性，又可避免由于紧张造成的不必要的失误。提纲可详可略，应因人而异。一般地，首先应确定每段的主题句、事例，并随手记下相关的语句。近年来的常考题型中，题目本身已经给出了中文提纲，这时就要根据题目列出意思清楚、语句通顺的英文提纲。这一项大概需要花5分钟时间，在平时的写作训练中学生就应当有意识地锻炼自己列提纲的能力，养成发散性思维的习惯，这样考试时就不会觉得没话可说，思路总是受到局限。3 成文根据提纲写作时，除照顾到过渡、照应外，还应注意语言的准确与简明。语言以达意为准，不必堆砌华丽的辞藻，也不可一味地用大词、长句。首先要做到尽可能地减少错误，在此基础上考虑句式变化、用词面广等问题。同时，还应避开自己不会用英文表达的思想，使用自己有把握的词汇和句型，切忌生编乱造。由于已经有了提纲，这部分写起来就会容易得多，大概需要花20分钟时间。4 修改 写完作文后，不要以为大功告成，彻底松了一口气。考生还应好好利用剩下的2-3分钟时间仔细修改检查，看是否有重大语法错误。以下几个方面是考生常忽视的，如主谓一致、时态、用词、拼写、大小写、标点。要保持卷面整洁，不要在上面涂很多黑疙瘩，字迹一定要清楚、容易辨认。2第三部分 四级作文的基本格式：三段式事实上四级作文只能叫mini-composition. 文章基本可分三部分：开头、正文、结尾（Introduction, Main body and Conclusion）。因为四级作文要求篇幅为120字，所以一般来讲，三部分可分别为20，70 和30个字。这样符合黄金分割，卷面美观、漂亮，给人的总体印象好。四级作文一般多为三段式论说文，第一段为开头，点题开篇；第二段为主体，展开论述；第三段为结尾，总结全文，得出结论。主体部分的段落通常也由三个部分组成：主题句（topic sentence），扩展句（supporting sentences）和结论句（concluding sentence）。文章的三个部分1 开头（引言部分）文章的引言与段落的主题句一样，是统领全文的纲。引言无论从空间还是时间上都应具高度概括性，使读者一眼就能看出你下文将要涉及的内容。请看例文： Television is extremely valuable when it is watched in moderation, as it provides relaxation, entertainment and education.这一文章开头看似简单，但它既表述了作者对电视的态度，又预示了下文将要讲的内容。从引言中我们不难推断作者一定将从relaxation, entertainment 和education 三个方面来说明电视的好处。再看例文：Work, for most American and Chinese women, aged 55 and under, involves responsibility for a household, a child or children, and a job outside the home as well. It all adds up to a busy life.这是一篇讲东西方妇女的文章的引言。通过提纲分析我们看出作者正是从家务事，照看孩子和工作三个方面论述了中美职业妇女的相同与不同。文章的开头方法有很多，如引语法、数字统计法、提问法等等。但就四级短文写作而言，重要的不是采取什么方法，而是做到以简洁的笔墨引入正体，切忌写成一个“狮子头”。如以On Automobile为题的文章，有的同学这样开头：Automobile is a means of transportation. In Jinan alone there are over 100 000 cars. Its estimated that there are at least 50 million ones in the world. It is a large number. From this, we can see that automobiles have become a major kind of useful vehicle in the world.120字的短文，开头就占了约50字，留给正文和结论段的篇幅和时间就很少了。何况，这段内容与汽车带来的利弊这一主题关系并不直接，其中的数字也不见得准确。因此，这样的开头不可取。事实上，上段开头完全可以写得简洁直接一些，如：As an important means of transportation, automobiles are enjoying growing popularity all over the world.常见于文章开头的词句：To begin with, smoking should be banned in public areas.Generally speaking, it is the best policy to spend more money on libraries. First of all, study always comes first for a student.With the development (progress, growth, etc.) of society (science, technology, economy, etc.), womens role has become more important than ever before in daily life. Recently, the problem of environmental protection has become the worlds focus.2文章的主体 主体部分的写作其实就是我们在第二学期学的段落写作，很重要的一点就是必须要有主题句。它可以出现在段首、段中或段尾。对120字的四级短文写作而言，把主题句放在段首更利于扣住中心思想展开论述。 近年来常见的作文题型是提纲式作文，这些提纲句往往可以充当段落主题句，但应适当添加连词，以使全篇前后照应，浑然一体。请看下面的例子： One reason why people over 75 should not be allowed to drive is that they are a hazard on the road. By that age most peoples vision and hearing have become worse, thus they can not see cars, pedestrians, and traffic signs as well as they could in their youth. In addition, they have slower reaction times. This is particularly problematic because while driving, one must be constantly on the alert to the need to stop or to swerve suddenly to avoid collision. These physical and mental impairments lead to a lot of accidents. In fact, if we compare on a per-mile basis the elderly with other groups of drivers, it turns out that the elderly are involved in 25 accidents per 100 drivers. This is second to the group aged 24 and under.注意：文章的主体要注意其连贯性（coherence），也就是过渡词（transitional words）的应用。 在第四部分我们会详细讲到文章的展开方式。3. 文章的结尾文章的结尾是给自己一个重申观点的机会，在这里作者强调文章的主题，使读者回味全文。但是须注意，结尾虽然要呼应文章的开头，但这种呼应不是对开头的简单重复，而是主题的升华或深入。下面是看电视的好处一文的结尾： Therefore, the benefits of television cannot be ignored. We can use television to relax, to have fun, and to make ourselves smarter.这里relax 对应 relaxation，to have fun 对应 entertainment，to make ourselves smarter 对应education.原则上，论说文通常用结论性语言结束文章。从篇幅上看，结尾应该短小精悍。常见的结尾写法有：-总结文章的主要内容。这是最常见的写法。-提出希望或展望未来。在图表式作文中比较常用。-对文章所提出的观点进行反问，启发读者思考。如：An open China has realized the importance of business. Why should we give up this opportunity and rely solely on agriculture?-引用谚语或名人名言印证自己的观点。如：As a popular English saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. So we should properly keep the balance between study and play. 结尾的写作应注意以下几点：-避免结论脱离或偏离文章的主要内容。如在论述兼职的弊端后，有的学生写道：In a word, taking part-time jobs is an essentially good thing to us. Therefore, we should try to take part-time jobs whenever there is a chance. 这样的结论无视上文关于兼职的弊端的论述，脱离了文章的内容。-避免结论太空、太大。如在论述了兼职的利弊之后，作出如下结论：In conclusion, everything is two-sided and taking part-time jobs is no exception. 这样的结论太空泛了。-避免在结尾引入新的话题。这是写文章的大忌，因为这样做破坏了文章结构的完整性。如1995年6月讨论是否应该禁止燃放烟花爆竹的作文，有考生的结尾是这样的：So far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter. Setting off firecrackers should be banned since it has so many disastrous disadvantages. However, to those who really enjoy setting off firecrackers, this really is a problem to be solved. 这位考生的语言功底不错，但他的最后一句话引入了一个新的话题，而文章又就此打住，从而使得文章不完整。-避免结尾以一句话匆匆收场，造成头重脚轻的失衡现象。例如在以Preciousness of Time为题的短文中，在分别论述了时间的重要性、列举了一些人不珍惜时间的行为后，这样简单地结尾：Time is precious, so we should not waste our time. 这显然没有起到深化主题的作用。常见于文章结尾的词句：In conclusion/In short/In summary/In brief/In a word/To conclude/To sum up/To end up,Only when one works hard enough can his success be secured. （注意：only引导的强调句除了强调主语外都要主谓倒装)第四部分 文章的展开方式 (How to develop your composition?)所谓文章的展开事实上就是文章主题部分的展开，因此，文章的展开可参考段落的展开方式。一般地讲四级作文的展开方式可有以下五种：1.以因果关系展开（by cause and effect）何时用这种方式很简单，只要看题目或提纲中有无“为什么”或者“原因”等字词。例如：谈谈为什么社会上流行单身主义又如：为什么假冒商品如此盛行当然不是说只有当题目中有“原因”或“为什么”时才能用这种展开方式，像“体育锻炼的好处”、“电视的危害”等都可以用因果方式展开，因为这里将要谈的是引出的结果，同样属于因果关系。请看例文：(introduction)The Lilac Inn Restaurant is losing business for three major reasons. First, customers are staying away because of the unsanitary conditions in the restaurant. The tables are often messy and floors dirty. In addition, the service is poor. The waiters and waitresses are generally slow and unfriendly. The waiters and waitresses dont wear uniforms. Most important of all, customers are not pleased with the food at the Lilac Inn. The meals are of poor quality and overpriced.(conclusion)关于因果关系展开方式亦可参见前面关于“禁止75岁以上老人驾车”一篇。注意：无论是阐述原因还是结果都要以主次为序。一般情况下两到三个原因或结果即可。平时要多训练自己归纳原因和分析结果的能力，多积累，以免考试的时候没有内容可写。表示因果关系常用的词和短语有：Because of ; due to; owing to; thanks to; as a result; for this reason; consequently; accordingly; thus; hence; therefore; in this way等练习1：What are the benefits of reading newspapers？可以从以下几个方面思考：扩大知识面，提高阅读能力，强化思想意识。想好之后，把它转化成通顺的英文，注意连贯：参考答案：Reading newspapers can widen our scope of knowledge. Not only can they help us improve our reading ability, but they can help us enhance our ideology. Because of these benefits, I like reading newspapers.练习2：为什么互连网现在如此流行？参考答案：Generally, there are two main reasons for the popularity of the Internet. One the one hand, the net provides us with a faster and more convenient way to do things. We can do shopping, reading, and even chatting simply by clicking the mouse, without leaving home at all. On the other hand, the net causes the shift or rearrangement of social resources. Organizations and enterprises have become increasingly aware that if they do not get on line, they may lose their competence. 2. 程序分析法 （by process）这种方法适合于说明文体。题目中一般会出现“如何”或者“的过程”等字眼。例如：如何包饺子但是注意：How to succeed in a job interview这个题目就要用因果关系展开了，因为显然你不需要描写面试过程，而是要阐述面试成功的因素。所以考试的时候一定要审好题。例文是关于儿童认知过程的发展：According to Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, children go through various stages in cognitive development. The first stage is called the sensorimotor period (02 years). During this time, the childs behavior is primarily motor. The second stage is that of preoperational thought (27 years). During this stage, the child is developing language and gaining a number of concepts. The next stage is the period of concrete operations (711 years). During this period, the child is acquiring ability to apply logic to concrete matters. However, it is not until the last stage, called the formal stage (11+onward), that the child is able to do high level of abstract reasoning.以这种方式展开要特别注意先后次序。下面是一些常用的句式：First, /The first step is to/ To begin with, Next, /Then, / The next step isNow is time toFinally, / The last step is toInitially, /In the beginning, /Prior toDuring this time/By nowsubsequently, /following this, /In the end,shortly after练习：作为出门在外的学子，你应该有过邮寄包裹的经历。下面是打乱了的次序，请重新排列，然后就“how to post a parcel”写一个段落。a. put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrappingb. packed the objectsc. pay the money and get a receiptd. give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to checke. keep your receiptf. the clerk will give you a form g. weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should payh. fill in the form and give it together with the parcel to the clerk (correct order: b-a-d-f-h-g-c-e)范文：It is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them something. Different objects are packed in different ways. Things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. After you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. Give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check. He will then give you a form to fill in. Having filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk. He will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. You pay the money and get a receipt. Be sure to keep your receipt until you are told that the addressee has received the parcel. If anything wrong should happen to your parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed. 3. 分类法（by classification）分类法较适合说明文体，但在议论文中为了方便也可以用分类法展开。请看例文：AdvertisementGenerally, we can classify advertisements into two groups: the good and bad advertisements. The good ones are informative and can help people buy and sell goods. They can also widen peoples knowledge and make people more experienced. But the bad ones are often harmful to people. An advertisement like this, for example, may put thousands of women and girls into trouble, “Disillusioned with life, love, or marriage? You need help. Phone me.” 分类常用句式：X consists of/ X is made up ofX fall into three categories (classes, types).X can be divided into five groups.X can be classified according toThere are basically three types ofGenerally, we can classify X into three groups.注意：分类要依据同一原则。例如：在对所学的学科进行这样的分类：history, biology, English and natural science显然就不好。练习：根据学生的学习习惯，他们可以分成几大类？每一类的特征是什么？Students can be divided into distinct groups based on their study habits. There are basically three categories: the perpetual studier, the average studier, and the crammer.The perpetual studier is a rare breed indeed. But they exist and they arent very hard to spot. They usually sit in the front of the class and write about three pages of notes a day regardless of how much material the instructor covers. The majority of students fall into a category that I refer to as the average studier. This person studies sufficiently but doesnt work more than necessary. When he studies for a test, he will look over the notes taken, reread appropriate pages in the textbook, and study with a friend sometimes. The third type of studier is the crammer. This type of person studies only when the threat of taking that lesson over is very great. When he studies for a test, he doesnt begin until the night before or the morning of the test. He spends most of his time doing anything that doesnt have to do with school. 这是从新遍大学英语第二册第4课节选出来的。大家看，需要用分类法的文章，题目通常会问你：某某东西可以分成几类？这时你就要把握好分类的原则，把分类的对象准确地进行划分，并说明每一类的特点就可以了。其实在写每一类的特点时，你又是在运用下面要讲到的比较法中的块式比较：4. 比较法（by comparison and contrast）比较可分为条式比较和块式比较。请看例文：A：条式：My two cousins Mary and Anne are similar in many ways. In fact, some people think the two girls are twins rather than sisters because they are close in age, both of them in their early teens, and because they look and act a good deal alike. They are both tall for their age and slender, and they both wear their dark brown hair long and straight. Mary, who is fifteen, has charming large brown eyes with long, dark eyelashes; and Anne, who is fourteen, also has beautiful dark eyes. They both have lovely olive complexions, and when they smile, they radiate warmth and happiness. They even dress alike. Mary sews almost all of her own clothes, and Anne is also learning to sew. Because they are almost the same size, they can borrow each others patterns as well as clothes. What is most noticeable about the two girls is that they are both talented, outgoing, and friendly. Mary is the vice president of her class and active in dance and drama. Anne, who is also a good student, is a star member of the tennis team as well as an accomplished guitarist. As might be guessed, my two cousins are both very popular.条式比较的特点就是先说一方的情况，然后马上介绍另一方，这样步步紧跟，文章显得十分紧凑。B：块式： Both my brothers, Nick and Joe, have the same parents and the same background, but they differ considerably in appearance and lifestyle.Nick, the younger one, has long curly hair and a beard. He usually dresses casually in blue jeans and T-shirt. He is a cook in a small restaurant. Because the restaurant is near his home, he rides his bicycle to work. In his free time, Nick goes to movies and plays football. He lives alone in the city in a small house.My brother, Joe, on the other hand, looks more conservative than Nick. He has shorter, straighter hair. He has a moustache but no beard. His clothes are also more conservative than Nicks are. Because he is a businessman, he wears a suit and tie to work. He drives his car to his downtown office every day. In his spare time, he goes dancing and plays soccer. Joe lives in a large house in the suburbs with his wife, their children and a cat. 例子中先简单说兄弟俩的相同点，然后分两段分别写其中的一个人，两段的句子相互呼应，处处表现出他们的不同点。和分类法不同的是，运用比较法时作者已经清楚地知道要比较的双方（或三方）各是什么，只需对它们进行比较即可。比较法常用句式：a. Similar to A, B also hasb. Like A, B often takesc. Compared with A, B has a very d. In contrast to A, who is short and plump, B is tall and slender.e. Unlike A, B shows no interest inf. A is, B, on the other hand, isg. A and B are both/Both A and B练习：吃饭和读书有什么共同点吗？范文： Eating and ReadingAs a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of my mind, they are in a way quite similar.To keep ourselves alive, we need all kinds of nutrition. Eating is the most important way by which we can get starch, protein, vitamin, sugar, fat, and some trace elements. On the other hand, we eat not only because we have to do so, but also because we enjoy doing so. Having satisfied our hunger, eating can then be a kind of enjoyment. The color, the smell and the taste of the food are considered as important as its nutritive value. Very often we eat some food not because it is nourishing but simply because we like it. Similarly, to enrich our minds, we need information and knowledge, which can be obtained through reading. Reading is one of the most important ways of learning. Without reading our minds will become empty like that of an animal. Sometimes, we take reading as a pastime, and we relax and learn at the same time. Since recreation is involved, we will naturally develop a partiality for some particular kinds of books, just as we do for certain kind of food. Besides, there are other similarities between eating and reading. We should not eat too much without digesting and assimilating, nor should we read too much without understanding and remembering. While we are eating, we should leave out the rotten part of the food which will do harm to our health; and while we are reading, we should be able to reject the poisonous content in a book, if any, for it will poison our minds.So, eat sensibly and read sensibly to give yourself a strong body and a healthy mind. 范文不仅运用了块式比较，还运用了条式比较，比较层次很清晰。大家在写的时候不妨试着学习，但是千万别写乱了，导致赘述，效果会适得其反。5. 举例说明法 （by examples or illustrations）这种方法能最直观地阐述论点，在运用的时候要注意典型性，具体性和简明扼要三条原则。首先，例子应具有较强的代表性或说服力。如在以On Taking Part-time Jobs为题的短文中，有些同学举某些大学生做兼职时由于缺乏社会经验上当受骗的例子来说明做兼职的坏处。这样的例子是不合适的，因为这看似是兼职的后果，而实际上缺乏社会经验正是不了解社会造成的，这又足以说明兼职的必要性。这样的例子显然不具备说服力。其次，具体性表现在应选取和生活联系紧密或自己有亲身感受的事例。有的同学在以Honesty为题的短文中举例道：For example, should an underground party member be so honest as to tell the truth to the enemy? 此例虽然典型，但毕竟离现实生活非常遥远，也就缺乏亲切感和感染力。最后，由于考试时间和篇幅有限，举例应以说明问题为准，不能变成讲故事，应该用简洁的语言把和论证观点有关的内容说清楚即可，和论点无关的一句都不要写。因为整篇文章还是论说文，不要在描写例子上花太多笔墨。请看下段：There are cases in which its wiser and kinder not to be honest. For example, if your child was ill, you would make him have some kind of medicine. But the medicine was too bitter and your child didnt want to take it. Then what would you do? I think in this case you sho