知识管理知识的定义

知識管理知識的定義,平面傳播科技系,資料、資訊、知識、智慧,資料 資訊知識智慧妙智慧：屬於宗教、心靈層次,資料是什麼,載荷情報的物理符號，是對客觀事物的數學、文字、圖象等的表示數字、字母與符號的集合是資訊的原料是事實(Facts)：例如學生的名字與電話號碼等,資料,資料乃是字母、數字、圖表、符號等用來代表事件與狀況，並依照既定的規則與習慣組織而成資料代表事實，但當資料被接收者吸收並變成有意義及價值時，就變成資訊任何事實都是資料。舉例來說，空中大學學生的名字與電話號碼,資訊是什麼,能減低不確定感的東西-不確定的相反選擇的自由度是一種負熵能改變知識結構的東西，in + form有用的信息消化後的資料,資訊,特殊事實、主題或事件的傳播；情報、新聞等告知的行動；心靈或個性、訓練、教學等之型塑；教學知識的傳遞資訊是經過加工後的資料資訊代表能對知識結構產生改變的東西,知識是什麼,人對實在(Reality)的了解人的主觀世界對客觀世界的概括和如實反應。主體對客體了解的程度人類社會實踐經驗的總結強調系統性、理論性與普遍性主觀知識與客觀知識的差別,知識,廣義來看，它代表人類所知的全體。狹義來看，知識是某個人對某事、某物或某個學科了解或嫻熟的程度。有些人因為經驗，對某些事物非常嫻熟，如木工、推拿師父等，這是經驗的知識。有一些人透過學院的訓練，對某個主題或學科，有著深層的了解，可以稱這些人具備學科的專門知識，如律師、醫生產業專門知識，應配合技術生命週期。,智慧是什麼,對人類問題的洞察力能作出審慎而正確判斷的能力真正地能夠認識自己、把握自己的行為才是智慧,智慧,智慧是一種人類問題的洞察力、它是一種高級或抽象的知識有些人雖然有知識，但不見得有智慧。因為這些知識指的是專業的知識，只告訴我們如何操作機器、如何看病、如何開刀、如何治病，但在人生疑難，行為方面的解決上並沒有辦法有所助益,妙智慧,又稱般若對未見之事的信心。超越世俗、解脫成佛的智慧般若波羅蜜-智慧到彼岸-圓滿無缺的超越智慧體悟一切事物都是無所有不可得，亦即都是空的智慧,資料、資訊、知識及智慧的比較,資料、資訊、知識及智慧，愈往上聲望及權力愈高資料具客觀性質，資訊則有主觀資訊及客觀資訊的差別知識有記錄性知識、默會知識、理論知識、經驗知識等差別智慧之上更有妙智慧,資料、資訊、知識及智慧的比較,知識講分別，分得愈細，知識愈專精，缺點則是一管之見智慧有好幾種。愛因斯坦是深探宇宙秘密的智慧。排難解紛的人則是洞見問題的智慧。宗教人物是一種洞察人生真相的智慧。因為無我，不起分別心，因而超越一己之見，提出解決人生困境的建議。更高超者，則體現隨順眾生的視界。,美國大公司的研發經費Science and Engineering Indicator 2000,General Motors： 八十二億美金Ford ： 六十三億美金IBM ： 四十三億美金Lucent ： 三十一億美金HP ： 三十億美金研發經費與知識、技術累積間的正向關係,Aristotles Knowledge Taxonomy,Episteme: Knowledge that is universal and theoretical, e.g. Know whyTechne: knowledge that is instrumental, context-specific and practice-related, e.g. know howPhronesis: knowledge that is normative, experience-based, context-specific and related to common sense, e.g. practical wisdom,OECD的知識的種類,知道是什麼的知識(Know-what)，知道為什麼的知識(Know-why)知道怎麼樣做的知識(Know-how)知道是誰的知識(Know-who),Know-what,是指關於事實方面的知識例如紐約有多少人口？做煎餅用的是什麼原料？滑鐵爐戰役發生於何時？都是這類知識的例子。知識類似於通常稱為信憩的東西，並可分解為信憩單位比特(bit)。在一些複雜的領域，專家們需要掌握許多此類知識才能完成他們的工作，律師和醫生便是這類人員。,Know-why,是指自然原理和規律方面的科學理論。此類知識在多數產業中支撐著技術的發展及產品和工藝的進步。Know-why知識的產生和再生產由專門機構如實驗室和大學完成。,Know-how,是指做某些事情的技藝和能力。商人判斷一個新產品的市場前景，或一個人事經理選擇和培訓員工都必須運用他們的Know-how。操作複雜機器的熟練工人也是這樣的。典型的Know-how是各個商家發展和保存於自己範圍內的一類專門技術或訣竅。產業網絡形成的最為重要的原因之一是，企業間有分享和組合Know-how要素的需求。 企業的營業秘密。,Know-who,涉及誰知道和誰知道如何做某些事的信息。包含了特定社會關系的形成，即有可能接觸有關專家並有效地利用他們的知識。不同企業間和專家之間高度的分工而形成技能的廣泛分散，對於經濟活動具有重意義。對現代管理者和企業而言，重要的是要利用此類知識對變化率的加速變化做出響應。Know-who類知識對於其他類型的知識來說，屬於企業內部高級別的知識。企業的營業秘密。,需要不同的管道學習四種知識,Know-what和Know-why類知識可以通過讀書、聽演講和查看數據庫來獲得Know-how則必須透過社會實踐中學習，或通過特殊的教育環境來學習。它也能在與顧客、轉包商和獨立的研究院所的日常交往過程中學習。企業從事基礎研究的原因之一是要獲得對它們的創新能力起關鍵作用的科學家網絡。Know how的基礎在於Know-who，必須知道師傅何在才能學習他的Know how，並把師傅當作權威一樣。Know-who散佈社會底層，不易從正式的信息渠道獲取。,World Bank的二種知識,關於技術的知識(Technical Knowledge) ，也稱之為技術知識或簡稱技術訣竅。這方面的例子有營養、控制人口、軟件工程及會計等。一般而言，發展中國家擁有的技術訣竅比工業國少，窮人擁有的技術訣竅比非窮人少。不同國家間及國家之內知識的這種不等分配，我們稱之為知識差距。,World Bank的二種知識,關於屬性的知識(Attribute Knowledge)，如產品的質量，工人的勤奮程度，或企業的資信狀況，它們對有效的市場是非常重要的。在不能完全了解關於屬性的知識方面遇到的困難，我們稱為為信息問題。解決信息問題的機制包括制定產品標準、頒發培訓證書、發布信用分析報告等等，在發展中國家，此類機制一般較少，而且比較脆弱。信息問題及由此而導致的市場失靈尤其會對窮人的利益造成損害。,Polanyi的知識類別,Michael Polanyi將人類知識分為記錄性知識（codified knowledge）及默會知識（tacit knowledge）二類前者又稱 Explicit Knowledge（另有譯為顯性知識）。後者又名為 Implicit Knowledge（另有譯為隱性知識）。,Codified Knowledge (Explicit),我們對記錄性知識較為熟悉，因為表現於文字上的都屬於記錄性知識，圖書館長久以來處理的也可說是記錄性知識。而默會知識較少為人提及，且易被忽略學術界透過研討會、書刊的閱讀、及教室在傳播知識，但比較強調記錄性知識的使用記錄性知識主要透過圖書館、資訊中心、資訊分析中心等傳播機構在儲存及傳播,Tacit Knowledge (Implicit),產業界則則比較不關注記錄性知識，他們比較強調實用性的知識，行動中的知識，經驗或是默會知識Nonaka指出默會知識有二個面向，其一為技術層面，包括非正式的個人技巧，或者如我們所說的知道如何做（know-how）；其二是認知層面，包含根深蒂固於我們腦中的信仰、理念、價值、基模(schemata)、認知模式（mental models），會影響我們對世界知覺的方式。默會知識即是Polanyi所指的支援意識,何謂支援意識(一),Michael Polanyi曾將人的意識分為明顯自知的集中意識，和無法表面明說，卻可由潛移默化而得到的支援意識。人的創造活動是這兩種意識交互影響的過程；但在這種過程中，支援意識所發生的作用更為重要。,支援意識(二),Polanyi以釘釘子來說明這二種意識的互動性。當我們以鐵鎚擊打釘子時，我們對釘子與鐵鎚的注意力雖然一樣，但卻以不同的方式；我們眼睛注視著釘子，手則揮舞著鐵鎚不斷地在擊打釘子。雖然我們沒有看著鐵鎚，但在敲擊時，卻不會讓鐵鎚打到我們的手，反而都很準確地打到釘子。,支援意識(三),依照Polanyi的說法，那是當我們在釘釘子時，握著鐵鎚的掌心及手指上，佈滿一種統合的感覺，這種感覺指導我們去掌控整個動作幫助我們的集中意識，繼續準確地鎚擊釘子。事實上，這種感覺並非我們注意力的焦點，它只是工具。平常我們看著東西時，都會對這種感覺有所體會。,支援意識(四),盲人透過杖尖的接觸將感覺傳到手掌及肌肉，以分辨地上的東西。杖尖碰到物體，是一種集中意識，但要分辨碰到什麼，則必須依靠盲人的支援意識。而這些支援意識，是需要不斷地累積才能成形的。騎單車、彈鋼琴都可以如此解釋支援意識可以讓我們碰到問題時，更容易尋找出解決之道,Choos knoweldge types: Tacit Knowledge,The implicit knowledge used by organizational members to perform their work and to make sense of their worlds.Tacit knowledge is hard to verbalize because it is expressed throuth action-based skills and cannot be reduced to rules and recipes.,Choos knoweldge types: Explicit knoweldge,Knowledge that can be expressed formally using a system of symbols, and can therefore be easily communicated or diffused.Explicit knowledge may be object-based or rule-based.,Choos knoweldge types: Explicit knoweldge,Object-based knowledge may be found in artifacts such as products, patents, software, code, computer databases, technical drawings, tools, prototypes, photographs, voice recordings, films, and so on. It is represented using strings of symbols (words, numbers, formulas), or is embodied in physical entities (equipment, models, substances),Choos knoweldge types: Explicit knoweldge,Explicit knowledge is rule-based when the knowledge is codified into rules, routines, or standard operating procedures. A substantial part of an organizationss operational knowledge about how to do things is contained in its rules, routines and standard procedures.,Choos knoweldge types: Cultural knowledge,The cognitive and affective structures that are habitually used to perceive, explain, evaluate, and construct reality.The assumptions and beliefs that are used to describe and explain reality, as well as the conventions and expectations that are used to assign value and significance to new information.,Choos knoweldge types: Cultural knowledge,An organizations cultural knowledge consists of the beliefs it holds to be true and justifiably so about itself and its environment. Importantly, an organizations cultural knowledge is used to answer questions such as “what kind of an organization are we?”, “what knowledge would be valuable to the organization?” “What knowledge would be worth pursuing?”,Sackmanns Cultural knowledge,Dictionary knowledge comprises comprises commonly held descriptions, including expressions and definitions used in the organization to describe the “what” of situations, such as what is considered to be a problem, or what is considered to be success,Sackmanns Cultural knowledge,Directory knowledge refers to commonly held practices and is knowledge about sequences of events and their cause-effect relationships that describe the how of process, such as how a problem is solved or how success is to be achieved.,Sackmanns Cultural knowledge,Recipe knowledge comprises prescriptions for repair and improvement strategies that recommend what action should be taken for example, to solve a problem or to become successful.,Sackmanns Cultural knowledge,Axiomatic knowledge refers to reasons and explanations of the final causes or a priori premises that are perceived to account for why event happen.,Zack 的四種知識,Declarative KnowledgeProcedural KnowledgeCausal KnowledgeRelational Knowledge,Declarative knowledge,or knowledge about, refers to the ability to recognize and classify concepts, things and states of the world. It can be represented as a hierarchical classification scheme such as that underlying the Dewey decimal system, the charting of genus and species of life forms, a bill of materials, or a table of contents. Effective communication and sharing of knowledge requires the members of an organization to agree on the labels, categories and distinctions used to represent the things important to the organization,Procedural knowledge,or knowledge how, refers to the understanding of an appropriate sequence of events or the ability to perform a particular set of actions. This may include organizational ceremonies and rituals as well as everyday operating procedures and routines. Procedural knowledge can be represented as ordered sequences of events associated with particular roles and relations. Shared procedural knowledge enables efficient coordinated action to take place.,Causal knowledge,or knowledge why, refers to an understanding of why something occurs, for example, the factors influencing product quality or customer satisfaction. Causal knowledge can be formally represented by describing the causal links among a set of factors (Schank 1975, Weick and Bougnon 1986), but more often is less formally represented as organizational stories (Schank 1990). Shared stories provide a means for organizations to develop consensus about why particular actions should be taken or how best to achieve some goal,Relational knowledge,refers to an understanding of the relationships among or between these types of knowledge. Developing new products and markets is often the result of recombining existing resources and competences rather than acquiring new ones, and failures are similarly the result of not understanding how those resources relate. A particularly useful form of relational knowledge is understanding how the human resources of the firm relate to one another - that is, the social and communication networks of the firm through which knowledge is transferred or shared .,Types of Knowledge Gained by Expatriate Managers (1),Declarative (what): factual knowledge about local culture, which are different from our own.Procedural (how): about how things work, about skills and processes learned while abroad; how to learn a languageConditional (when): when to apply the newly developed declarative and procedural knowledge. Learns how to discriminate between situations in the culture, to differentiate the conditions under which behavior is appropriate,Types of Knowledge Gained by Expatriate Managers (2),Axiomatic (why): a new or deeper understanding of why things as they are in and between cultures, to develop insights into different logics behind actions, decisions, and situations in the new cultureRelational knowledge (who): their network of professionally relevant contacts. The personal nature of relationships means that such knowledge can be shared but it is not fully transferable,8 Categories of knowledge focused activities (Ruggles),Generating new knowledgeAccessing valuable knowledge from outside sourcesUsing accessible knowledge in decision makingEmbedding knowledge in processes, products, and/or servicesRepresenting knowledge in documents, databases, and software,8 Categories of knowledge focused activities (Ruggles),Facilitating knowledge growth through culture and incentivesTransferring existing knowledge into other parts of the organizationMeasuring the value of knowledge assets and/or impact of knowledge management,Important of knowledge as critical to organizational success,Knowledge about customers, 93%Organizations products/services, 81%Best practices, 82%Competencies and capabilities, 84%Emerging market trends, 74%,關鍵性知識類型(一),關於完成某項特定工作的知識，如怎樣拆卸機翼關於怎樣處理好公司內部事務的知識，充份利用公司文化關於公司員工掌握了什麼的知識關於誰能最好完成特定任務的知識關於企業歷史和公司為什麼以現在這種方式運轉的知識,關鍵性知識類型(二),關於特定顧客賬戶的知識關於地理、國家和商業習慣的知識關於如何集中團體力量，完成特定任務的知識關於怎樣處理疑難問題的知識.,組織的知識來源,External Knowledge: 競爭者、大學、賣主、國家實驗室、顧客、諮詢顧問等Internal Knowledge: 存在組織中的知識，制度、習慣、員工腦袋中的知識等等這些知識表現為Codified and Tacit 二種內型,Software knowledge:Procedural,Procedural memory stores all the information related to the skills developed to interact with our environment (walking, talking, typing, mousing!, etc.). Knowledge acquisition is based mainly on practice. Procedural knowledge never requires verbal support and is very difficult to describe. Once learned, it is rarely forgotten. This kind of knowledge includes what we call know-how, which is knowledge that is built up through experience. Early designers of expert-systems have underestimated the complexity of this knowledge structure.,Software knowledge,Declarative knowledge is based on facts. It is static and concerned with the properties of objects, persons and events and their relationships. Declarative memory contains all the information that is consciously and directly accessible. Declarative knowledge is easy to describe and to communicate.,Software knowledge:,Chunking: Another component of the mental process is the amount of knowledge available for immediate processing. Psychologists have been using the concept of chunks to take into account the limited amount of knowledge that can be handled by the mind at any given time. Chunks are very general and do not refer to the information content of the knowledge. It has been found that short-term memory, or working memory, has a limited capacity and can typically only process 7 2 chunks at a time.,Softwa