新编语言学教程ppt课件.ppt

01Introduction汪立荣email lirone QQ 752256232 Specificexpressions快 forexample isusedinChinesewhenpeoplearecomingtoyourhouse 快请进 快请坐 快喝杯水 快喝杯茶 快吃个苹果 InthiswayweChineseexpressourwelcomeandwarmthtothevisitors And慢isusedwhenpeoplearetosaygoodbye 慢走 慢慢吃 慢慢喝 慢慢聊 慢慢倾 Cantonese 慢慢压 Cantonese 1 SuchexpressionsarespecifictoChinese ThatiswhyinEnglishwecannotsay Comeinquickly Sitdownquickly or Walkslowly GrammaticalrulesInEnglish forexample I isfollowedby am and you by are and he by is Nowtrytoanswerthefollowingquestions 1 Aretherulesinlanguageformedgraduallythrougheverydayuseorprescribedbylinguists 2 2 Peoplespeaktheirmothertonguecorrectly fluentlyandappropriately AnilliteratewomaninGuangzhou forexample speaksCantonesecorrectly fluentlyandappropriately DoyouthinksheknowsCantonesegrammar Whyorwhynot Howdoyouexplainthisphenomenon 3 Isthereanythingwrongwiththesentence Myfatherisaworker Why 4 Isthereanythingwrongwiththesentence Let sgotoeatrice Why 3 1 Linguistics 1 1DefinitionYoumayfindithardtoanswerpeoplewhoaskyou Whatexactlyislinguistics andwhatdolinguistsdo Theymightassumethatitmeansthatyouaremultilingual Andyoumay infact beapolyglot butthat snotwhatlinguisticsmajorisabout Linguisticsisthescientificorsystemicstudyoflanguage p 1 4 Attheheartoflinguisticsisthesearchfortheunconsciousknowledgethathumanshaveaboutlanguage s anunderstandingofthestructureoflanguage andknowledgeabouthowlanguagesdifferfromeachother Whatexactlydowemeanbythis Whenyouwereborn youwerenotabletocommunicatewiththeadultsaroundyouusingtheirlanguage Butbythetimeyouwerefiveorsix youwereabletoproducesentences understandjokes makerhymes andsoon 5 Inshort youbecameafluentnativespeaker Allofthishappenedbeforeyouenteredfirstgrade Ifyoustudiedaforeignlanguageinhighschool youknowthatlearningalanguagelaterinlifedidnotgonearlyassmoothlyorasquickly Duringthosefirstfewyearsofyourlife youaccumulatedawiderangeofknowledgeaboutlanguage Majoringinlinguisticsmeansthatyouwilllearnaboutmanyaspectsofhumanlanguage includingthephysicalpropertiesandstructureofsounds phoneticsandphonology words morphology sentences syntax andmeaning semantics 6 Itcaninvolvelookingathowlanguageschangeovertime historicallinguistics howtheyvaryfromsituationtosituation grouptogroup andplacetoplace sociolinguisticsanddialectology howpeopleuselanguageincontext pragmatics orhowpeopleacquireorlearnlanguage languageacquisition Facultymembersinlinguisticsprogramsareexpertsinatleastone ifnotseveral ofthesesubfields 7 Manylinguists infact haveexpertiseinmultiplesubfieldsandenjoycollaboratingwithotherlinguistswithdifferentbackgroundsinordertofurtherscientificknowledge Linguisticsprogramsmaybeorganizedarounddifferentaspectsoflinguistics Forexample aprogrammightfocusonthelinguisticsofaparticulargroupoflanguages likeSlaviclinguistics howlanguageisacquiredandprocessed psycholinguistics howlanguagerelatestosocialandculturalissues includinglanguagelearningandteaching appliedlinguistics ortheconnectionsbetweenlinguisticsandcognitivescience 8 Alloftheseprogramsshareaninterestintheunconsciousknowledgethathumanshaveaboutthelanguage s thattheyknowandwhatispossibleorimpossibleinlanguage 1 Thethreecanonsoflinguistics p 1 Sincelinguisticsisascience itisguidedbythesamethreeprinciplesasinothersciences a exhaustiveness 9 Thelinguistshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation b consistencyThereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatementc economyThebeststatementsaretheshortestpossibleoneswhichcanaccountmostfullyforallfacts 10 2 Twopurposes p 2 a Linguisticsstudiesthenatureoflanguageinordertoestablishatheoryoflanguageanddescribeslanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished b Linguisticsexaminesalltheformsoflanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlife 11 1 2ThedifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammarTraditionalgrammar asapre 20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandpre linguisticproductofresearch wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek e g EnglishhadsixcasesbecauseLatinhadsixcases andlaidemphasisoncorrectness literaryexcellence theuseofLatinmodels andthepriorityofwrittenlanguage 12 1 2 1ThreesourcesofprescriptivegrammarThethreesourcesfromwhichtherulesofprescriptivegrammarcomefrom 1 LatinandGreek unchangingformoftheselanguages becausetheyaredeadlanguages theydonotchange highprestigeinEuropeaneducation brillianceofclassicalliteraturee g ItisI andnot Itisme 13 2 thewrittenlanguageespeciallytheworksofgreatwriters Peoplearetoldtospeakastheywouldwrite e g Whomdidyouspeakto 3 LogicGrammarshouldbejudgedinsofarasitfollowstheprinciplesoflogic e g Youshouldn tsay Ihaven tdonenothing 14 1 2 2DifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammarLinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthefollowingthreeways 1 Itjustdescribeslanguages insteadoflayingdownrulesofcorrectness 2 Itregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary notthewrittenlanguage 3 ItdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmeritsinsteadofimposingLatinmodelsonit 15 1 3Useofstudyinglinguistics pp 3 4 1 Tohaveanoverviewofhumanlanguage 2 Tounderstandthathumanlanguageshaveimportantfeaturesincommonthoughtheydiffergreatlyinmanydetails 3 Togoalongthepathleadingtothefinalprofessioneitherasateacherofforeignlanguagesorasaresearcheroflinguisticsortranslation p 4 16 1 4Scopeoflinguistics pp 4 8 1 microlinguisticsVSmacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Thesebranchesareattheverycenteroflinguisticscope Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics itstudiestherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety 17 Psycholinguistics itstudieslanguageandmind Neurolinguistics or Neurologicallinguistics itstudieslanguageprocessingandlanguagerepresentationinthebrain Stylistics itstudieshowliteracyeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures Discourseanalysis Textlinguistics itstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichlanguageisused 18 Computationallinguistics itemploysmathematicaltechniques oftenwiththehelpofacomputer Cognitivelinguistics itanalyzesnaturallanguagethatfocusesonlanguageasaninstrumentfororganizing processing andconveyinginformation Thesebranchesarerelatedtosomethingthatisnotatthecenteroflinguisticscope 19 2 LinguisticsclassifiedfromdifferentperspectivesfunctionallinguisticsVSformallinguisticstheformerstressesthefunctionoflanguageandthelatterstressestheformoflanguagetheoreticallinguisticsVSappliedlinguisticstheformerstudiesthe pure theoryinlanguageandthelatterstudieshowtoapplythetheorycorpuslinguistics linguisticdescriptionbasedontheextensiveaccumulationofnaturallyoccurringlanguagedataanditsanalysisbycomputers 20 forensiclinguistics theexaminationoflinguisticevidenceforlegalpurposesmathematicallinguistics thestudyofthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguageanthropologicallinguistics thestudyoflanguageincross culturalsettings3 Recentdevelopmentsoflinguistics Corpuslinguistics DiscourseAnalysis Cognitivelinguistics Computationallinguistics Mathematicallinguistics 21 2 Language 2 1Whatislanguage Duringthelonghistoryoflanguagestudy manylinguistsorscholarshavetriedtodefinewhatlanguageis Forexample linguists suchasSapir Block Hall Robins Crystal Chomsky triedtoexplainwhatlanguageis Andeachoftheirdefinitionshasitsstrongpointsaswellasitsweakpoints yetnoneofthedefinitionsaresatisfactory foritisreallyverydifficulttogiveacomprehensivedefinitionoflanguage 22 Atthepresent mostlinguistsareinbroadagreementaboutthefollowingdefinitiongivenbyWardhaughinhisIntroductiontoLinguistics 1972 Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication Shortasitis thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage 23 Firstofall languageisasystem thatis elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules forexample iblk isnotapossiblesoundcombinationinEnglish and Beenhehashere isnotanacceptablesentenceinEnglish either Iflanguagewerenotconstructedaccordingtocertainrules itcouldnotbelearnedandusedconsistently Second languageisarbitrary Thereisnodirectconnectionbetweenthelinguisticformandthethingitrefersto 24 Third languageisvocal Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound speech Asweknow languageisabstractanditisrealizedintwoforms speechandwriting Amongthetwomediaoflanguage speechisprimaryforthefollowingreasons 1 Speechhasahistoryofabout100 000yearswhilewritinghasonlyahistoryofseveralthousands 2 Therearestillsomecommunitiesthathavespeechwithoutwritingsystem 3 Speechislearnedbeforewriting 25 4 Mostofthehumancommunicationisdonebyspeech 5 Writtenlanguagecan toalargeextent beconvertedintospeechwithoutloss buttheconverseisnottrue Fourth languageisusedforhumancommunicationandlanguageishuman specific Thatis languageisonlypossessedbyhumanbeings anditmakesitpossibleforitsuserstotalktoeachotherandfulfilltheircommunicativeneeds 26 2 2Originoflanguage pp 9 10 Becausenoonecansayhowandwhenlanguageoriginated therearesomespeculationsaboutit 1 Plato Therewasa perfect language 2 Socrates Imitationofnaturalsoundswasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage 3 Man sinstinctiveresponsetocertainexternalstimuliwasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage 4 Ding DongTheory Humanspeechdevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontotheobjectsheencountered 27 5 Sing SongTheory Languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise 6 Poor Pooh ExclamationorInterjectional Theory stressesthespeaker semotion 7 Yo He HoTheory criesutteredduringstrainofwork 8 Ta TaTheory Languagecamefromthecombinationofcertaingesturesandtonguemovement 28 9 Bow WowTheory imitationofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature Conclusion Languageoriginates growsanddevelopsinsociety 2 3DesignfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeaturesarethoseoneswhicharethoughttodistinguishhumanlanguagefromanimalcrysystem TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedthefollowing7designfeaturesoflanguage 29 1 Arbitrariness Thereisnological intrinsicordirect connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings orthelinguisticformsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig However languageisnotentirelyarbitrary therearecaseswherethereseemstobesomeassociationbetweensoundsandmeaning 30 Thatis suchcasesarenotarbitrary butmotivated e g a Onomatopoeticwords p 10 Acatmews Apigeoncoos Adogbarks Acowbellows Aduckquacks etc b Somecompoundwords tractordriver shoe makerc Syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords especiallyinsofaraswordorderisconcerned d Theconnectionbetweensoundsandtheirmeaningsismadebyconvention e g Apairoftrousers 一条裤子Apairofshirts 两件衬衣 31 2 Duality thepropertyoflanguagewithtwolevelsofstructure oneofsounds lowerlevel andtheotherofmeaning higherlevel Atthelowerlevelthereisastructureofsounds whicharemeaningless e g p t andwhichcanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords e g p t Atthehigherlevel theunitsofmeaningcanbegroupedandregroupedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences Phoneme morpheme word phrase clause sentence 32 3 Productivity creativity Languageuserscanutilizelimitedlinguisticrulestoproduceorunderstandinfinitemeaningfullinguisticforms includingthosetheyhaveneverheardbefore e g Abeautifully dresseddogisdancingonthehotelbed 他一边脱衣服 一边穿裤子 小学生的造句练习 33 4 Interchangeability reciprocityThisreferstothefactthatanyspeaker senderofalinguisticsignalcanalsobealistener receiver 5 Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast presentorfuture orinfar awayplaces hereandnow 34 6 Specialization Linguisticsignalsdonotnormallyserveanyothertypeofpurpose suchasbreathingorfeeding 7 CulturalTransmission Alanguagesystemisnotgeneticallytransmitted butculturallytransmitted Thatis alanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtoanotherbyteachingandlearningratherthanbyinstinctorbirth 35 2 4Functionsoflanguage1 Differentclassificationsofthefunctionsoflanguage a R Jakobson sixfunctionsb M A K Halliday threefunctionsc J Lyons threemainfunctions2 Accordingtothepopularview languagehasatleastsevenbasicfunctionsthatservepeople sdailycommunication 36 1 PhaticPhaticfunctionisthefunctiontoestablishcommunionwithothers Languageisusedforestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactbetweenthespeakersratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas e g greetings farewells smalltalk Forexample whenapersonasks Howareyoutoday heisnotreallyinterestedinthehearer sstateofhealth butisexpressinggoodwill 37 GiveexamplesofphaticcommunicationfromChineseandindicatewhichofthesewouldbeacceptableandwhichwouldcauseoffenceifliterallytranslatedintoEnglish 2 DirectiveLanguageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething e g Closethewindow please Youshouldleaverightnow IfIwereyou Iwouldtakeit 38 3 InformativeLanguageisusedtotellthefacts togiveinformationaboutsomething todescribethematerialworld ortoreasonthingsout e g Waterboilsat100degreescentigrade 4 InterrogativeLanguageisusedtoinquireinformation 5 ExpressiveLanguageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker e g MyGod I mverysorryaboutit 39 6 EvocativeLanguageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer e g toamuse toanger toworryortopleasethehearer jokesaredesignedtoamusetheaudience advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods publicspeechaimstoinfluencepeopleinacertainline 40 7 PerformativeLanguageisusedtodothingsortoperformactions Oncertainoccasions theutteringoftheappropriatewordsisthecentralcomponentintheperformanceoftheact Actuallyinourdailylife somethingcanbedoneeitherlinguisticallyornon linguistically andothersonlylinguisticallyornon linguistically 41 3 Somemajorconceptsinlinguistics 1 DescriptiveandprescriptiveDescriptivegrammaronlydescribesthefactsoflanguage Prescriptivegrammartriestolaydownrulesfor correct languagebehavior 2 synchronicanddiachroniclinguisticsSynchroniclinguistics thestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime Diachroniclinguistics thestudyofthewayalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime 42 3 LangueandParoleLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules 43 Langueisabstract itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse butparoleisconcrete itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents Langueisrelativelystable itdoesnotchangefrequently whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson andfromsituationtosituation 44 4 CompetenceandperformanceLinguisticcompetence theunconsciousknowledgeaboutsounds meaningandsyntaxwhichispossessedbythenativespeakerofalanguage Concretelyspeaking Linguisticcompetencemayincludethefollowingabilities a theabilitytopointoutwhichcombination