Chapter 5 Meaning 新版 ppt课件

1 ChapterFiveMeaning 2 Introduction Thestudyofmeaning Semantics thestudyofmeaning英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos 意思是significant 有意义 是研究语言意义的科学 Linguisticsemantics thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits wordsandsentencesinparticularThemeaningofwords LexicalsemanticsThemeaningofsentences Propositionalmeaning compositionalmeaningThemeaningofutterances Pragmatics 3 Meaninghasalwaysbeenacentraltopicinhumanscholarship Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers logiciansandlinguists e g Plato Aristotle 4 Logiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences typically statements or propositions withinasinglelanguage Thelinguisticapproachisbroaderinscope aimingtostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible 5 5 1MeaningsofMEANING Theword meaning hasdifferentmeanings C K Ogden I A Richards 1923 TheMeaningofMeaning Johnmeanstowrite Agreenlightmeanstogo 6 Healthmeanseverything Hislookwasfullofmeaning 7 Whatisthemeaningoflife 8 Whatdoes capitalist meantoyou 9 Whatdoes cornea mean Thetransparent convex anteriorportionoftheouterfibrouscoatoftheeyeballthatcoverstheirisandthepupilandiscontinuouswiththesclera 10 GeoffreyLeech 1974 1981 Semantics TheStudyofMeaningSeventypesofmeaning ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaning AssociativeMeaning 11 1 Conceptualmeaning Alsocalled denotative or cognitive meaning Referstological cognitiveordenotativecontent Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes orrefersto 12 2 Connotativemeaning Thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent Amultitudeofadditional non criterialproperties includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties aswellastypicalfeatures 13 Involvingthe realworld experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit Unstable theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture historicalperiod andtheexperienceoftheindividual Anycharacteristicofthereferent identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit 14 Stepmother 15 16 17 3 Socialmeaning Whatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse Dialect thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass Time thelanguageofthe18thc etc Province languageoflaw ofscience ofadvertising etc Status polite colloquial slang etc 18 4 Affectivemeaning Reflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker includinghisattitudetothelistener orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout I mterriblysorrytointerrupt butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastoloweryourvoicesalittle orWillyoubeltup 住嘴 19 Colorful meaning Commendatorytough mindedresolute firmshrewdchildlikewisemanmanofunusualtalentportly stout solid plumslender slim Derogatoryruthlessobstinatesly craftychildishwiseguyfreakfleshy fat tubbylean skinny lanky weedy scraggy 20 5 Reflectedmeaning Arisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense Manytabootermsareresultofthis 禁忌语 21 6 Collocativemeaning Theassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment pretty girl woman flower garden colour village etc handsome boy man car vessel overcoat airliner typewriter etc 22 7 Thematicmeaning Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage intermsofordering focus andemphasis MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith 23 5 2Thereferentialtheory指称论 Thereferentialtheory Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto orstandsfor isknownasthereferentialtheory Words Meaning Words name or referto things Platonic古希腊哲学家柏拉图认为语言形式是语言中的一个词 语义是它所代表 所指示 所表示的世界上的实体 指称 referent 比如dog这个词代表了属于这一类的实体 ThemostinfluentiallinguistNoamChomskyteachesatMIT 24 Problemwiththistheory themeaningofdesk Whenweexplainthemeaningofdeskbypointingtothethingitrefersto wedonotmeanadeskmustbeoftheparticularsize shape colorandmaterialasthedeskwearepointingtoatthemomentofspeaking Weareusingthisparticulardeskasanexample aninstance ofsomethingmoregeneral Thereissomethingbehindtheconcretethingwecanseewithoureyes Andthatsomethingisabstract whichhasnoexistenceinthematerialworldandcanonlybesensedinourminds Thisabstractthingisusuallycalledconcept 概念 25 Thesemantictriangle语义三角 Words Concepts Things Ogden Richardsthought concept sensesymbolizesreferstosymbolreferent word standsfor object 26 Richardsinventedthesemantictriangletodemonstratetherelationshipbetweensymbolsandtheirreferent Onepartofthetriangleisthesymbol ortheword Anexamplewouldbeablanket Anotherpeakonthetriangleisthethought concept sense Thisisthewordsthatonewouldusetodescribethereferentsuchaswarm cozy cotton Thereferent object thing thelastpart isthethingthatonewouldpictureinhismind RichardsfeelsthattheSemanticTriangleappliestoallwords 27 airplane 28 Senseandreference涵义与指称 Sensereferstothemainfeatures thedefiningpropertiesanentityhas Thesenseofdesk apieceoffurniturewithaflaptopandfourlegs atwhichonereadsandwritesSenseisequivalenttoconcept Theconceptofdeskmayalsobecalledthesenseofdesk Reference theconcreteentitiesaparticulardeskintheworld 29 Everywordhasasense i e someconceptualcontent Butnoteverywordhasareference Grammaticalwordslikebut if anddonotrefertoanything Wordslikeunicorn SantaClaus God ghost fairy demonanddragonrefertoimaginarythings whichdonotexistinreality Abstractwordslikesincerity lovedon thaveaconcretereferentintheworld 30 Whatismore itisnotconvenienttoexplainthemeaningofawordintermsofthethingitrefersto Weshouldstudymeaningintermsofsenseratherthanreference 31 5 3SenseRelations SynonymyAntonymyHyponymy GradableComplementaryConverse 32 5 3 1Synonymy buy purchaseworld universebrotherly fraternalthrifty economical stingyautumn fallflat apartmenttube underground 33 5 3 2Antonymy 1 Gradableantonymygood badlong shortbig smallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery Canhavecomparativeforms Canbeaskedwithhow 34 2 Complementaryantonymy alive deadmale femalepresent absentinnocent guilty odd evenpass failboy girlhit miss 35 3 Converseantonymy buy selllend borrowgive receiveparent childhusband wife teacher studentabove belowbefore afterhost guestemployer employee 36 5 3 3Hyponymy InclusivenessAisincludedin akindofB Cf chairandfurniture roseandflowerSuperordinate hypernym themoregeneraltermHyponym themorespecifictermCo hyponyms membersofthesameclassSometimesasuperordinatemaybeasuperordinatetoitself 37 Animalbirdfishinsectanimalhumananimaltigerlionelephant 38 Sometimesasuperordinatemaybemissing colorterms red green yellow blue whitebeard moustache whiskersHyponymsmayalsobemissing uncle 伯伯 叔叔 舅舅 姑父 姨夫rice 稻 谷 米 饭 39 Thefamilytree 舅父 mother sbrother 叔叔 father syoungerbrother 伯父 father selderbrother 姨母 mother ssister 姑母 father ssister 40 5 4ComponentialAnalysis SEMANTICFEATURESSEMANTICCOMPONENTSHUMANman ADULT MALE woman ADULT FEMALE boy NON ADULT MALE girl NON ADULT FEMALE 41 Animalwords 42 Englishmotionverbs 43 Morecomplexones father PARENT x y MALE x xisaparentofy andxismale take CAUSE x HAVE x y xcausesxtohavey give CAUSE x HAVE x y xcausesxnottohavey 44 5 5SentenceMeaning Themeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords 45 Thecatischasingthemouse Themouseischasingthecat Ihavereadthatbook ThatbookIhaveread Sentencesusingthesamewordsmaymeanquitedifferentlyiftheyarearrangedindifferentorders Differentthematicmeaning 46 5 5 1Anintegratedtheory TheprincipleofCOMPOSITIONALITYKatz Fodor 1963 Thestructureofasemantictheory A40 pagelongpaperpublishedinLanguage Themethoditselfisyearsoutofdatebutthedebateabouttheprincipleofcompositionalityisbynomeansover Cruse 2004 77 47 Theideabehindtheprinciplewastosolvetheproblemofgeneratinggrammaticalbutmeaningless sentenceslikeColorlessgreenideassleepfuriously 48 Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences Thuswecansaycolorfulballbecause 49 colorful Adj Color aboundingincontrastorvarietyofbrightcolors Evaluative havingdistinctivecharacter vividness orpicturesqueness 50 ball NC SocialActivity Large Assembly forthepurposeofsocialdancing PhysicalObject havingglobularshape PhysicalObject solidmissileforprojectionbyengineofwar 51 Thenitispossibletoworkoutfourreadingsofthecombinationsofcolorandball andfurthercombinationswithotherwords projections willdeterminewhichofthefouristheactualmeaninginthesentenceJohnhitthecolorfulballsandWehadacolorfulballlastnight 52 5 5 2Logicalsemantics Propositionallogic thestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions howthetruthofacompositepropositionisdeterminedbythetruthvalueofitsconstituentpropositionsandtheconnectionsbetweenthem Truthcondition conditionswhichmustholdforthesentencetobeusedtomakeatruestatement Thus beforewecantruthfullysay onsomeoccasion Thecatisonthemat theremustbesomerelevantfelineoccupyingaspecificpositionrelativetoanappropriateitemoffloorcovering 53 Thoseaspectsofthemeaningofasentencewhichdetermineitstruthconditionsarecollectivelyknownasthepropositionalcontentofthesentence Twosentenceswithidenticalpropositionalcontentwillyieldstatementswiththesametruthvaluesonalloccasionsofuse asforinstance JohncaressedMaryandMarywascaressedbyJohn Bythesametoken iftwosentenceshavedifferentpropositionalcontent therewillnecessarilyexistsomeconceivablesituationinwhichtheywillyieldstatementswithoppositetruthvalues 54 Proposition astatement withatruthvalue trueorfalse egTheearthisflat Theearthgoesaroundthesun Allteachersarefemale 55 Logicalrelations Not PAnd P QOr P QIf then P QEqualsto P Q 56 Truthvalue Not 57 Truthvalue And 58 Truthvalue Or P Q 59 Truthvalue If then 60 Truthvalue Equalsto 61 PredicateLogic ArgumentandPredicateJohnruns runs John orR j JohnlovesMary loves John Mary orL j m JohngaveMaryabook gave John Mary book orG j m b 62 One placepredicate runTwo placepredicate loveThree placepredicate give 63 Quantifiers all some Allteachersarefemale x T x F x Forallx ifxisateacher xisfemale Someteachersarefemale x T x F x Therearesomex sthatarebothteachersandfemale 64 Allmenarerational x M x R x Socratesisaman M s Therefore