外文翻译原文-地理信息系统和科学的现状及发展趋势

6thInternationalConferenceonMiningScienceandTechnologyGeographicinformationsystemsandscience:todayandtomorrowMichaelF.GoodchildUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,CA93106-4060,USAAbstractGeographicinformationisdefinedasinformationlinkinglocationsonorneartheEarthssurfacetopropertiesofthoselocations.ThetechnologiesforhandlingsuchinformationincludeGPS,remotesensing,andgeographicinformationsystems.Behindthetechnologiesareasetoffundamental,researchableissueswhosestudyhasbeentermedgeographicinformationscience.Ireviewthesetechnologiesunderfourheadings:positioning,dataacquisition,datadissemination,andanalysis.RecentresearchhasledtosubstantialadvancesinspecificareasofGIScience.Ioutlinefivefuturescenariosthatarealltechnicallyfeasiblegivencurrenttechnology,anddiscusstheresearchadvancesthatwillbeneededtomakethemareality.IntheconclusionIcommentonthechangingneedsofeducationingeographicinformationsystemsandscience.Keywords:Geographicinformationsystem;remotesensing;geographicinformationscience;GPS1.IntroductionOverthepastfourdecadesmassiveprogresshasbeenmadeindevelopingandimplementingtoolsthatacquire,store,analyze,andsharegeographicinformationthatis,informationdescribingthecharacteristicsofspecifiedlocationsontheEarthssurface.Moreformally,geographicinformationcanbedefinedasinstancesoraggregationsofprimitiveatomictuplesoftheformwherexdefinesalocationonorneartheEarthssurface,andmayincludethetemporaldimension,andzdefinesoneormoreattributesofthatlocation.Goodchild,Cova,andYuan1haveshownhowthisfundamentalformunderliesallofthemyriadformatsofgeographicinformationthatarenowinwidespreaduse.Thetechnologiesthathavebeendevelopedforhandlingsuchinformationincludesystemsforacquiringimageryfromaircraftorspace,otherwiseknownasremote-sensingsystems;theGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)andothertechnologiesfordetermininglocation;andmostgenerallygeographicinformationsystems(GIS),anumbrellatermfortoolsdesignedforprocessing,analysis,modeling,andstorage.Thesetechnologiesbegantoemergeinthe1960s,andnowconstitutealargeandgrowingindustrialsector.Inthepasttwodecadesithasbecomeapparentthatsuchgeospatialtechnologiesraiseissuesoffundamentalsignificance,andthattheseissuesformadomainofsciencewhosediscoveriesprovidethebasisforthetechnologies.Thisscienceisvariouslyknownasgeographicinformationscience(GIScience;2),geospatialscience,geoinformatics,geomatics,andspatialscience.MuchprogresshasbeenmadeinGIScience,whichisnowwidelyrecognizedasaresearchfieldandawell-definedsubsetofinformationscience.InthispaperIfirstreviewrecentprogressingeographicinformationtechnologies.ThesecondmajorsectionthenexaminesrecentprogressinGIScienceandsketchesanumberofscenariosforthestateofthetechnologiesintenyears.Italsoaddressesthechallengesthesedevelopmentspresenttoeducation,andthedevelopmentsthatwillneed187-2009PublishedbyElsevierB.V.doi:10.1016//locate/procediaProcediaEarthandPlanetaryScience1(2009)10371043ProcediaEarthandPlanetaryScienceOpenaccessunderCCBY-NC-NDlicense.tooccuriftheeducationalsystemistorespondeffectivelytothem.Thepaperendswithsomebriefconcludingpoints.2.TheGeospatialTechnologiesTechnologicaldevelopmentshavealwaysprovidedmuchoftheimpetusfortheexpansionandadoptionofthegeospatialtechnologies.Foursetsofdevelopmentsseemtohavebeenparticularlyimportantinrecentyears,andtheyarereviewedinthefollowingsubsections.2.1.PositioningThecompletionoftheGPSinthe1980s,andthepermanentremovalofSelectiveAvailabilityinthe1990s,openedthewaytoitswidespreadadoptionbothasamilitarysystem,itsoriginalpurpose,andasabasisforasuiteofconsumerproducts.TodayGPSiswidelyusedasacheap,reliablesystemfordetermininglocationtoafewmeters,andtobetterthanameterinspecializedversions.GPScanbeembeddedinmobilephones,personaldigitalassistants,andevenwristwatches,andtodayGPShaslargelyreplacedthetraditional,cumbersometechnologiesofthepast.InturnGPShasledtoanexplosionofservicesbasedonit,includinglivefeedsofpositionalinformationovertheWeb.Thusithasbecomeroutinefortravelerstobeabletoaccesssitesshowingthereal-timepositionsofbusesandaircraft.GPSisnowbeingusedtointegrategeoreferenceddatafeedsfrommultiplesources.Forexample,theAdvancedEmergencyGIS,aprojectofESRIandtheLomaLindaUniversityMedicalCenter,providesanintegratedviewofinformationrelevanttoanemergency,includinglivefeedsofthelocationsofrescuehelicoptersandambulances,livefeedsofvideofrommajorhighways,reportsofaccidents,theperimetersofincidentssuchaswildfires,andbasemapping.ThisinformationisintegratedandmadeavailabletoemergencymanagersthroughastandardWebbrowser,providinganeffectiveandinteractivesynopticviewoftheemergency.Someofthesourcesprovidefeedsinstandardformats,butinothercases,suchasthefeedfromtheCaliforniaDepartmentofTransportationsincidentsite,itisnecessarytoprocessdatabeforetheycanbedisplayed,inthiscasebyscrapingtexttofindreferencestolocations,translatingthemintolatitude/longitude.Suchservicesformaservice-orientedarchitecture,andarebecomingincreasinglycommonontheWeb.TwoofthemostsuccessfulsuchservicesrelatedtoGISarethosethattranslateplacenamesintocoordinates,andthosethattranslatestreetaddressesintocoordinates.Recentlythedevelopmentofradio-frequencyidentification(RFID)hasprovidedanalternativepositioningtechnologythathasprovenusefulinnumerousapplications.Byapplyingatagtoanobject,itispossibletotracktheobjectasitmovespastRFIDscanners.RFIDisnowwidelyusedtotrackgoodsfromproductionthroughwarehousesandstorestotheconsumer,aswellaspetsandlivestock.RFIDisthebasisoftechnologiesforautomatedchargingoftollsonhighwaysandRFIDtagsarenowembeddedinmanymobilephonesandpassports.GPShaspromptedtherapidproliferationofsitesthatexploitgeoreferencedinformation,andcreateofnewinformationbycombiningtwoormoresourcesinwhatiscommonlytermedamashup.ButGPSisavailableonlyoutdoors,inlocationswheresignalsarenotimpededorreflected,andproblematicthereforeindoors,underdensetreecover,oramongtallbuildings.Thismeansthatpositioningisavailableonlyforasmallfractionofanaveragepersonslife.Recentlytherehasbeenmuchactiveresearchintoindoornavigation,throughexperimentswithpositioningtechnologiesandwiththerepresentationofsuchspacesinGIS.Itseemsreasonabletoexpecttheseexperimentstocometofruitionwithinthenextfewyears,allowingpositioningtobeextendedtocomplexthree-dimensionalspacessuchasmines,buildings,andshoppingcenters.Thecommercialopportunitiesareabundant,particularlyinthelastcase.2.2.DataacquisitionRemotesensingfromsatellitesnowprovidesimageswithsub-meterresolution,andmuchfinerresolutionsareavailablefrominstrumentsmountedonaircraft.Whiletheseimageslargelyfocusonopticalwavelengths,infra-redsensorshaveprovenveryusefulinmanycontexts,includingthedetailedmappingofthetemperatureoftheWorldTradeCenterwreckageinNewYorkinSeptember2001.Othersystemsmakeuseofactivesensing,sendingand2009)1010/ProcediaEarthandPlanetaryScience1(10383743M.F.Goodchildcapturingsignals.Radarremotesensingisnowapowerfulsourceoftopographicdataandunlikeopticalsensorsisindependentofcloudcover.LiDAR,whichuseslasertransmissionsfromaircraft,isnowprovidingveryaccurateanddensemeasurementsofelevation.InthepastfewyearsanovelandpotentiallyverysignificantsourceofgeospatialdatahasbecomeavailableintheformofWebcontentcontributedbyusers.Forexample,theWikimapiasite,modeledonWikipedia,invitesusersto“describethewholeworld”byoutliningfeaturesandrecordingdescriptionsandlinkstootherinformation.Therearenowwellover10millionentriesinWikimapia,allofthemcontributedbyvolunteers,andthevolumeandlevelofdetailofthisinformationfarexceedsthatofthetraditionalauthoritativeequivalent,thegazetteer.OthersitesincludeFlickr,whichnowcontainsontheorderof1billionphotographs,eachgeoreferencedandcontributedbyusersandannotatedwithrelevantinformation.OpenStreetMapisaninternationalefforttocreateafree,digitalmapoftheworld,withcontentthatcombinestheworkofvolunteerswithexistingpublic-domainsources.Thesesites,andmanyotherslikethem,representanewbottom-up,community-basedsourceofgeographicinformationthatisverydifferentfromthetraditionalauthoritativesourcesthatusedtodominatethesupplychain.Varioustermshavebeenusedtodescribethem,includingvolunteeredgeographicinformation3,user-generatedcontent,andcommunitymapping.Theyreflectafundamentalchangeinthenatureofmap-makingthathasenabledtheaveragecitizentocreateanddisseminatedata.Ofthefourkindsofexpertiseneededtomakeamapskillsinthemeasurementofposition,inthedraftingofmaps,inthesubjectmatterthatisbeingmapped,andinnavigatingthelocalareathefirsttwoarenowavailabletoeveryoneintheformofcheapGPSandreadilyavailablesoftware,respectively.Subject-matterexpertiseisminimalinthecaseofWikimapia,Flickr,andOpenStreetMap.Moreovereveryoneisarguablyanexpertintheirownlocalarea.Becauseitisnowpossibletomakemapswithoutanysubstantialfinancialinvestmentortrainingincartography,peopleengagedinthiskindofactivityhavecalledthemselvesneogeographers4,havingsubstantiallyreinventedtheactivityofmap-makingbymakingitpossibleforanyonetomakeamap.Therearenowthousandsofpeopleengagedinneogeography.Theinformationtheyproducecanbevaluableincreatingacommunitysownculturalrecord,asanalternativetoexpensiveauthoritativemapping,asarapidsourceofinformationinemergencies,orasaninputtoscientificresearch.2.3.AnalysisAnalysishaslongbeenakeyaimofGIS,andindeedtheearliestGISwasdesignedsolelyforthepurposeofanalyzinglandandsummarizingitbyarea.TodayahostoftechniqueshavebeenimplementedinGISforminingdatainsearchofpatternsandanomalies,makinginferences,andtestinghypothesesaboutcause.GISisnowanimportanttoolforsimulatingandpredictingfuturechangesontheEarthssurfacethroughtheimplementationofdigitalrepresentationsoflandscape-modifyingprocesses5.TodayitispossibletoassumethataGISiscapableofanyconceivableoperationongeographicinformation,fromthemodelingofeconomicdevelopmenttothesimulationofemergencyevacuationortheoptimalroutingofschoolbuses.Asubstantialsoftwareindustryhasgrownuparoundthisassumption,ledbyESRIofRedlands,CAanditsArcseriesofproducts.IntroductionstoGISanalysisanditsapplicationscanbefoundinmanytextbooks,including6.2.4.GeoportalsFollowingthepopularizationoftheInternetintheearly1990s,GISdeveloperswerequicktoseethepotentialforwidespreadsharinganddisseminationofgeospatialdata.Digitallibrarieswithcatalogsthatpermittedsearchacrosstheircollectionsbegantoappearinthemid1990s.Today,thestateoftheartisrepresentedbythegeoportals,Websitesthatintegratethecatalogsofmanycontributinglibraries,allowingasinglesearchacrossaunifiedcollection.Oncetheuseridentifiesapotentiallyinterestingdataset,heorsheisdirectedtothedatasetscustodiansite,fromwhichitispossibletodisplayorextractthedata.AcompellingexampleofageoportalisprovidedbytheUSGeospatialOne-Stop(,7),aprojectoftheBushadministrationtoprovideasinglepointofentrytotheabundantgeospatialdataavailablefromgovernmentsources.Anycustodiancanregisterwiththesite,allowingthecatalogofthecustodianscollectiontobeharvestedbythegeoportalandthusmadeaccessibletousers.Geoportalsrequiremechanismsfortranslatinguserrequestsintoreadilyprocessedqueries,andmustthereforeimplementbothametadatastandardandagazetteer.10392009)1010/ProcediaEarthandPlanetaryScience1(3743M.F.GoodchildToday,thegeoportalconceptcanbefoundinmanysitesaroundtheworld,mostofthemmaintainedbygovernmentsaspartoftheireffortstobuildgeospatialdatainfrastructure.ThereleaseofGoogleEarthandGoogleMapsin2005,andthesubsequentreleaseofseveralothermappingsitesandvirtualglobes,madeitpossibleforuserstoimplementanotherandpotentiallymorepowerfulmeansofdisseminatingdata,asmashupsusingaservicesAPI.Hundredsofthousandsofsuchsupplementarysourcesarenowavailable,thoughtheirvalueliesmoreinvisualizationthaninsystematicanalysis.3.GeographicinformationscienceAnumberofdefinitionsofGISciencecanbefoundintheliterature8,9,butallofthemboildowntothesameessentialnotion,thatbehindthetechnologieslieaseriesoffundamentalissuesofprofoundimportance.Thesearetheissuesraisedbytheuseofthetechnologies,andcapturedinwhatisoftentermedcriticalspatialthinking.Theyincludescale,accuracyanduncertainty,ontology,andtherepresentationofcomplexgeographicphenomena.SeveralattemptshavebeenmadetocreateasystematiccompilationofthetopicsofGIScience,notablythroughtheworkoftheU.S.UniversityConsortiumforGeographicInformationScience().3.1.RecentadvancesanddiscoveriesInthepasttwodecadessomeremarkableadvancesanddiscoverieshavebeenmadeinGIScience.Insomecasestheseresultfromanunusualcircumstance,inwhichthedevelopmentofGIStechnologyprecededthedevelopmentofthenecessarytheory.Asaresultimplementationswereadhoc,terminologywasinventedwhennecessaryratherthanobtainedfromrigorous,well-definedsources,andwidespreadvariationoccurredbetweentheformatsandstructuresusedbydifferentproducts.EventodaythefunctionalityofGISlacksanycoherentorganizationalstructure,anduserinterfacesareconsequentlydifficulttolearnandnavigate.Majoradvanceshavehoweverbeenmadeinthegeneralareaofspatialinformationtheory,ledinpartbytheestablishmentofthebiennialConferenceonSpatialInformationTheory(COSIT).Theprimarydistinctionbetweenconceptualizationsofthegeographicworld,knownasdiscreteobjectsandcontinuousfields,wasfirstidentifiedinthelate1980sinthecontextofuncertainty,andhassincebecomeacentralelementoftheory.In2007Yuan,Cova,andI10showedthatbothconceptualizationscouldbeobtainedfromasingleunifyingconcepttermedageoatom,andthatseveralotheradvanceddatamodels,includingobjectfields11andmetamaps12,couldbereducedtoasecondconcepttermedageodipole.Second,theconceptofuncertaintyhasbeenexploredatlength,andmanyfundamentalcontributionshavebeenmade13.Itisimpossibleforadigitalrepresentationofanygeographicphenomenontobeexact,anditisimportantinmanyapplicationstounderstandhowthecontentsofadatabasedifferfromthecontentsoftherealworld.Geospatialdataisinevitablyapproximated,generalized,andsampledinthecreationofadatabase,throughtheomissionofcertainlevelsofdetail,throughmeasurementerror,andformanyotherreasons.Moreovermanyofthedefinitionsusedtodefineclassesingeospatialdataarevague.WenowknowmuchmorethanbeforeaboutthepropagationofuncertaintythroughGISoperationsintoproducts,andabouttheuncertaintiesintroducedbydownscaling.Third,theliteratureofspatialcognitionhasadvanceddramatically,andprovideduswithimprovedbasesonwhichtodesignuserinterfaces,andimprovedunderstandingsofthewayshumansthinkabouttheirsurroundings.Spatialcognitionisanactiveresearchfieldthatacknowledgestheimportanceofgeospatialtechnologies,anditsroleintheirimprovement.Finally,wenowunderstandmuchmoreaboutthenatureofthegeographicworld,andhowitdiffersfromotherworldsandspaces.Anselin14wasperhapsthefirsttoask“whatisspecialaboutspatial?”,andhisanswerintheformoftwoempiricalprinciples,spatialdependenceandspatialheterogeneity,isnowunderstoodtobeafundamentaldiscoverywithprofoundimplications.Spatialdependence,oftenstatedasToblersFirstLawofGeography15,providesthetheoreticalbasisforthecompressioneconomiesthatareachievedwithpolygonsandotherdatabaseprimitives,andalsothebasisforallmethodsofspatialinterpolation.3.2.Futureprospects10402009)1010/ProcediaEarthandPlanetaryScience1(3743M.F.GoodchildInthissectionIsketchsomeideasaboutfuturedevelopments,andtheimpactsoflikelyadvancesingeospatialtechnologiesonhumansociety.First,itisalreadytechnicallypossibletoknowwhereeverythingis,atalltimes.Wealreadytrackmobilephoneswithaccuraciesthatdependonthespecifictechnologyemployed.Wetrackmanyvehicles,includingtruckandbusfleets,andinsomeEuropeancountrieseveryfarmanimalistrackedusingRFIDtags.Largenumbersofretailitemsaretrackedinstores,andshipmentsareoftentrackedbyshippingcompanies.SomemodernbuildingsincludeRFIDtagsoneverymajorbuildingcomponent,andsurveillancecamerasformdensenetworksinmanycities.Infutureitisreasonabletoassumethatthesepracticeswillexpandinscope,anditispossibletoimagineafutureinwhichthelocationofeveryhumaninanareaimpactedbyadisaster,suchastheWenchuanearthquakeofMay2008,willbeinstantlyknowntorescuers,greatlyincreasingthechancesoffindingvictimsquickly.Second,itispossibletoanticipateatimewhentheproblemsofdeterminingpositionindoors,andoftrackingmovingindividuals,willbesolved,andwayfindingtechnologieswillworkaseffectivelyforpedestriansastheycurrentlydoforvehicles.Third,thegrowthofvolunteeredgeographicinformationandneogeographysuggeststhatthecitizenwillplayamuchgreaterrolethaninthepast,asbothconsumerandproducerofgeographicinformation.The6billionhumansdistributedovertheplanetformavastreservoirofpotentialinformation,someofitofgeneralinterestandsomeofitonlyoflocalinterest.WehavelearnedfromtherecentfiresinSantaBarbarathatcommunity-sourcedinformationcanbemuchmoretimelyanddetailedthanofficialinformation,providingearlyanddetailedreportsondisasters.Citizensarealsomoreeffectivesourcesofmanytypesofinformationthanthetraditionalalternatives,remotesensingandnationalmapping.Ourconventionalnotionofcitizenandexpertwillchange,asthedistinctionbetweenthemcontinuestoblur.Fourth,thetrendtowardssystemsthatareeasytouseandopentoallthatreceivedsuchadramaticstimuluswiththereleaseofGoogleEarthandGoogleMapsin2005willcontinue.Arecentpaper16hassketchedavisionofthenextgenerationofDigitalEarth,buildingfromthe1998speechofthattitlebythenVicePresidentAlGorethatimaginedaworldinwhichdigitaltechnologywouldpresentanaccessibleviewnotonlyofhowtheworldlookstoday,butofhowitlookedinthepastandofhowitwilllookinthefuture.GIShasevolvedintoatechnologytosupportavastrangeofhumanactivities,fromscientificresearchtomanagement,butithasyettoreachitsfullpotentialasaplatformforinvestigatingalternativefutures,andfordesigninglandscapesthatachievecertainobjectives.Atechnologyofdesignwouldincludetoolsforsimulatingfuturelandscapes,basedbothonnaturalprocessesandontheresultsofhumanactions.Itwouldhavetodealcarefullywithuncertainty,sinceanystatementsaboutthefutureareboundtobeuncertain,andwouldhavetodosoinawaythatisimmediatelycomprehensibletothegeneralpublic.Finally,thetrendtowardsreal-time,continuousmonitoringofthegeographicworldwillprovideatechnologythatisincreasinglyaboutdynamicsandchange,andlessfocusedonthepresentasasnapshot.Infutureitwillbepossibletoknowthestateoftheworldatalltimes.Itiseasytoimagineafutureinwhichthestateofacitystransportationsystemisfullyknown,inrealtimethelocat