简明英语测试学第二章教案Chapter 2.doc

Chapter Two Uses and Types of Tests2.1 Measurement, test and evaluationMeasurement is the process of quantifying the characteristics of subjects according to explicit procedures and rules. This definition includes three distinguishing features: quantification, characteristics, and explicit rules and procedures. Measurement quantifies the characteristics (both physical and mental) of persons, such as heights, motivation and aptitude and involves tests and non-tests.测量就是根据明确的程序和规则量化研究对象特征的过程，即根据法则赋予事物数量。 测量的定义包含三个要素：1）事物及其属性：这是测量的对象或目标；2）指派数字或符号：所谓指派数字或符号，就是用数字或符号来代表某一事物或事物的某一属性的量；3） 法则：法则是指测量所依据的规则和方法，是测量的关键。Test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an individual Carroll(1968:46)。 Test, as a measurement instrument, is a procedure designed to get specific examples of a persons ability, such as reading/writing test.考试的定义为“用来获取某些行为的方法，其目的是从这些行为中推断出个人具有的某些特征”。Anastasi(1982)认为：测试实质上是对行为样本所做的客观的标准化的测量。它包含以下三个基本要素：行为样本，客观的测量，标准化的测量。所谓行为样本、是指对语言能力表现行为的有效的抽样。我们知道，一个人的语言能力的表现行为会有各种各样的形式，测试时下可能也没有必要把它的全部表现行为部测到，只能选取一部分有代表性的抽样进行测量，然后据此对受试者的语言能力作出推测。所谓客观的测量是指测量的标难是否符合实际。对于一项测试的客观性程度可以从这么几个方面去评价：1)测试题目的难易度和区分度如何；2)测试结果的可靠性程度如何；3)测试结果的有效性如何。标准化的测量是指在测试题目的编制、测试的实施、记分以及对分数的解释等方面有一套严密的系统的程序。只有这样，测试才有统一的标难，对不同人的测量结果才有可比性。凡是不标准化的测量，都没有可比性。Evaluation is systematic gathering of information for making decision. Evaluation can be divided into quantitative and qualitative evaluations. Numbers involved are quantitative, such as scores while analyzing-data involved belongs to qualitative, such as letters of reference. Weiss(1972)认为：评价(evaluation)是指为作出某种决策而收集资料，并对资料进行分析，作出解释的系统过程。 Measurement22EvaluationTest (adapted from Lyle F. Bachman, 1990:23)从图1可以看出，我们在对某教育目标(或学生的行为)作出评价时不一定用到测试或测量，这种评价属于质量评价，或叫定性评价。如指出学生在学习方面存在的问题。有时在作出评价时只需测量，而无需测试，对学生的口头表达能力定出级别就属于这种性质的评价。在外语教学、第二语言习得研究领域，我们经常拿水平测试作为研究的工具。不用测试便可进行测量的情况在外语教学研究领域也经常碰到，在研究学生的第二语言习得时，如果研究对象为来自不同国家的学生，人们般按其母语情况编号。总而言之，并非所有的测量都是测试，并非所有的测试都属于评价，而且并非所有的评价活动都涉及到测试或测量。2.2 Use of test（邹申，杨任明 2005:2022）A. Pedagogical functions of tests (in teaching and learning) Tests may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to motivate the students or primarily as a means of assessing the students performance in the language. Standardized tests and public examinations, in fact, may exert such a considerableinfluence on the average teachers that they are often helpful to decide the kind of teaching that takes place before the tests. Over the years language teachers has been using tests as part of their classroom teaching (Bachman&Palmer, 1996:3). B. Research functions of tests (in educational research)（邹，杨：24）The nature of language proficiency, language processing, language acquisition, language attribution/loss and language teaching2.3 Types of tests(Kinds of tests) 邹申、杨任明 2005: 2530）Language tests can be classified according to different criteria. They can be classified according to the following features:1) Test purpose 2)Test construction(test method)3) Test format (ways of measuring language) 4) Scoring procedures 5) Interpretation of scores2.3.1 Proficiency, achievement , placement and diagnostic tests( test purposes)Proficiency tests(revision & forecast tests )(selection test; theory-based) 它是一种回顾-展望型的测试。它回顾受测试者已掌握了什么知识和技能，综合运用语言的能力如何，并根据特定的任务来展望未来，预测受测试者今后是否有能力完成这一特定的任务.Proficiency tests are designed to measure peoples ability in a language regardless of any training they may have had in that language. It is not linked to any language programs or training. The content of a proficiency test is not in accordance with the content of the language courses. “Rather, it is based on a specification of what candidates have to be able to do in the language in order to be considered proficient” (Hughes 1995: 9). “Proficient” here means having sufficient command of the language for a particular purpose. An example of this would be a test designed to discover whether someone can function successfully as a United Nations translator(English for specific purposes). Another example would be a test used to determine whether a students English is good enough to follow a course of study at a British university. Such as PETS(Public English Test System), College Entrance Examination, Graduate Entrance Examination(English for general purposes).Proficiency tests are usually standardized tests that are used worldwide, nationwide and sometimes school-wide. TOEFL, IELTS, PETS, etc. are such tests. The purpose of these tests is to see whether candidates have reached a certain standard in terms of certain specific abilities. Proficiency tests have backwash worldwide, nationwide and school-wide. Some nationwide proficiency tests affect teaching across the country. Test scores play crucial roles in whether candidates can go abroad, get a job or be promoted. Achievement tests( formal revision tests) 学业成就测试(progress; syllabus-based) 它是一种正式的回顾型测试，旨在了解学生过去较长的一段时间内学业上有何成就。学校里比较正式的考试都在此范围。学业成就测试的命题(test making)，通常以教学大纲(teaching syllabus)、教学计划(teaching plan )及学生使用的教材(textbook)为依据。Achievement tests are designed to measure how much of a language learners have learned with respect to a particular language course or program. So, in contrast to proficiency tests, achievement tests are directly related to specific language courses. The purpose of achievement tests is to see how successful learners and also the course teaching have been in achieving objectives. In reality, there is another purpose. Achievement tests can discipline students to be attentive and committed to class teaching and learning. Achievement tests are usually designed to show mastery of a particular syllabus (e.g. end-of-year tests, school-leaving exams, public tests). Rarely constructed by classroom teacher for a particular class, achievement tests are designed primarily to measure individual progress rather than as a means of motivating or reinforcing language.n They are of two kinds of achievement tests: final achievement tests and progress achievement tests.Final achievement tests (summative evaluation) are those administered at the end of a course of study. They may be made and administered by ministries of education, official examining boards, or by members of teaching institutions. Clearly the content of these tests must be related to the courses with which they are concerned. Therefore, the content of a final achievement test should be based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books and other materials used. This has been referred to as the “syllabus-content approach”. It has an obvious appeal, since the test only contains what it is thought that the students have actually encountered, and thus can be considered, in this respect at least, a fair test. Progress achievement tests(formative evaluation), as their name suggests, are intended to measure the progress that students are making. Progressive achievement tests are done throughout the course. They can be of small scale like quizzes, week quiz, monthly tests, mid-term tests or final-term tests.Formative assessment is to diagnose learners learning process, information from which can be used by teachers as the basis for further work. Summative assessment is intended to measure learners achievement. A clear comparison of the two kinds of assessment is illustrated in the following table.Formative assessment:Summative assessment:is prepared and carried out by the class teacher as a routine part of teaching and learning- is not necessarily prepared and carried by the class teacheris specifically related to what has been taught, i.e. content is in harmony with what has been taughtdoes not necessarily relate immediately to what has been taughtthe information from the assessment is used diagnostically; it is focused on the individual learners specific strengths and weaknesses, needs, etc.the judgment about a learners performance is likely to feed into record-keeping and be used for administrative purposes, e.g. checking standards and targetsis frequently externally imposed, e.g. by an institution or a ministry of education.(Taken from Hedge who quoted Dickin 2000: p. 377)Formative assessment Who does formative assessment?Formative assessment is not exclusive to teachers only. It can be done through self assessment and peer assessment. Traditionally, teachers were in authority to evaluate students performance. Now students are encouraged to evaluate their own performance. It can be done either roughly or academically using certain criteria and weighing systems agreed on in advance (Ur 1996). It is thought that self assessment encourage learner autonomy. Peer assessment is conducted between classmates who evaluate each other either roughly or academically. Peer assessment is considered to promote cooperation and communication. What to assess?Assessing learners concerns evaluating learners academic and social performance and also their personality development. When evaluating students, teachers tend to give comments based on their studies. We even label students as “good” students and “bad students according to their learning scores. A students development is a wholeness thing. Teachers job is not only to help them learn effectively but also educate them to be healthy and capable people. Therefore, assessment scope should be extended to students social and personal development.Tools for formative assessment There are many tools that can be used for formative assessment, some of which are presented in the following. 1. Teachers observationThe teacher observes the students continuous studies, performance in class and out of class, individually and with others. Based on the observation, the teacher gives a subjective estimate of the students performance.2. Continuous assessmentIt refers to grades students got for quizzed and various assignments during the course over a period of time. For each quiz or assignment, it can be summative over a short time performance, but when it is put into an extended period, it has formative nature.3. Students written workStudents written work can be their compositions, reports, learning plans, some diary entries, etc. Any written piece of work can be a record that is of real or original nature.4. Students project workStudents do project for which they use their time, effort and creativity to make a wonderful piece of work. Things about project work, pieces throughout working on the project and the final products are silent but powerful evidence of students performance.5. Students performanceHere the performance refers to students participation in social activities such as acting in a play, making a speech or doing volunteer work, etc. Such performances should be kept representing by photos, videos, written description, peoples comments, rewards, and certificates, etc.6. Some recordsSome records refer to tangible evidence of students continuous development such as certificate for wining contests or competitions, passing national or worldwide exams, record of social work, etc. Students are also recommended to keep a list of their resumes on a computer, which is in the process of being up-to-date and kept for formative assessment.7.Using research methodsUsing research methods refers to using questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires are designed and interviews are conducted to find out students opinions, learning styles, problems, and personality, etc.There are advantages to achievement tests. First, such tests give teachers a clear picture of how much students have achieved. Second, teachers figure out problems in both teaching and students learning and work out solutions. Third, such tests can also make course designer consider course objectives to make them clearer and more specific so that test writers, teachers and students all feel clear where to work toward. The disadvantages of achievement tests are threefold. First, the test results can be misleading if the syllabus is badly designed and if the textbook is not well chosen. Successful performance on the test may not truly indicate successful achievement of course objectives.For example, a course may have as an objective the development of conversational ability, but the course itself and the test may require students only to utter carefully prepared statements abut their home town, the weather, or whatever. Another course is intended to prepare students for university study in English, but the syllabus (and so the course and the test) may not include listening (with note taking) to English delivered in lecture style on topics of the kind that the students will have to deal with at university. In each of these examples, test results will fail to show what students have achieved in terms of course objectives. Second, achievement tests may encourage mechanical and only-knowledge learning. Third, achievement tests will compel students to focus on textbooks for more than necessary time, which deprives students of acquired learning and autonomous learning to their own learning styles and learning pace.Placement tests (placement of learners; theory or syllabus-based) 分级测试它是为了把学生按照程度(English level)分班或者分组而举行的测试。分级测试常用于新生分班。Placements tests are designed to provide information used to place students at an appropriate level in a program or course. A typical purpose is to assign students to different-level classes. So what is crucial of placement tests is not their content but their purpose. The content of placement tests can base not only on linguistic theories but also a little higher than the actual teaching syllabus. For example, for the freshmen, we can use the mid-term paper or final paper in the first semester. Therefore the choice of placement tests is flexible Such tests may be based on aspects of the syllabus taught at the institution concerned, or may be based on unrelated material. In some language centers students are placed according to their rank in the test results so that, for example, the students with the top eight scores might go into the top class. In other centers the students ability in different skills such as reading and writing may need to be identified. In such a centre a student could conceivably be placed in the top reading class, but in the bottom writing class, or some other combination. In yet other centers the placement test may have the purpose of deciding whether students need any further tuition at all. For example, many universities give overseas students tests at the start of an academic year to discover whether they need tuition in the language or skill used at the university.Mid-term exam, Final-term exam, Graduation exam, Annual school exam, Public test, Entrance exam Diagnostic tests ( Informal revision tests) (progress; syllabus-based)它是一种非正式的回顾型的测试。主要了解学生过去一段时间学习有什么进步，学过的内容是否已经掌握。同时，它还能激励学生，努力学习。此外，教师也可以通过测试回顾过去这一段时间教学的情况。Diagnostic tests are designed to identify learners strengths and weaknesses. The purpose of such tests is to find out problems and decide what to teach and how to teach next. Take a diagnostic pronunciation test as an example. Through the test, teachers can know what problems students have in pronunciation so that teachers can design related pronunciation activities in their teaching. Or at school or department level, decisions will be made on how to solve students problems through courses or through checking systems. A rough diagnosis based on the test is comparatively easy. But it is not easy to obtain a detailed analysis of students command of the language. Writing and designing diagnostic tests takes much work, time and expertise. However, diagnostic tests are conducive to learners, so we need to do diagnostic testing. Diagnosis can be achieved in other types of tests too. Any tests can reveal students learning problems, which can be sources for teachers to find out what is wrong.Diagnostic Tests: can include progress, achievement and proficiency tests, enabling teachers to identify specific weaknesses/difficulties so that an appropriate remedial programme can be planned have a dictation, do some translations, answer questions, fill blanks, make up sentencesAptitude tests (语言能力倾向测试 )语言能力倾向测试是为了考察学生是否有能力从事英语学习。它并不计较受测试者是否学过英语，掌握得如何，而是要了解其潜在的能力(potential abilities)。Five abilities:1) the ability of phonetic coding 2) the ability of grammatical coding3) the ability of comprehensive induction4) the ability of short-term memory 5) the ability of oral English2.3.2 Direct versus indirect tests (test construction)Direct tests require the candidates or students to perform precisely the skill which test writers or teachers wish to measure. For example, if we want to know how well they have mastered present perfect tense, we designed a test on the tense and examine what is all right and what still needs strengthening. If we want to know about students pronunciation and intonation, we assign a test for them to speak and for use to measure. Indirect tests are used to measure the candidates abilities that underlie the skills in which test writers or teachers are interested. For example, mistake selection and correction are used to measure writing ability. Indirect tests are appealing because they are not limited to one direct item like direct tests. The main problem is that “the relationship between performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more interested tends to be rather weak in strength and uncertain in nature” (Hughes 1995: 16)2.3.3 Discrete point versus integrative tests(test format)Discrete point tests measure knowledge or skill of individual language items. They are testing of one element at a time, item by item. For example, a grammar test is of discrete point nature because it is composed of tenses, adverbs, prepositions, et