胡壮麟语言学课件.doc

2. What is this course about? Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Chapter 3 Lexicon Chapter 4 Syntax Chapter 5 Meaning Chapter 6 Language and cognition Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society Chapter 8 Language in use Chapter 9 language and literature Chapter 10 language and computer Chapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teaching Chapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics 1. language Definition Features Functions 1) Definition: Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. (语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。） Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。） Chomsky, 1957: From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.（从现在起，我将语言看作是一系列有限的或无限的句子，每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。） v 语言是人类特有的一种符号系统,当它作用于人与人的关系的时候,它是表达相互反映的中介;当它作用于人和客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候, 它是文化信息的载体和容器。 A Generally Accepted Definition v Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Understanding the Definition v Why a system? v Why arbitrary? v Why vocal? v Why symbols? v Why human? v Why communication? v system: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules. v arbitrary: there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the things we refer to. v vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages symbol: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention human: language is human specific, different from the communication system of animals The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. v Productivity/creativity: Human beings can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences. v Duality: lower level - sounds (meaningless) higher level- meaning a small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinitely number of sentences. Cultural transmission: Language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. 3) Origin of Language v The Divine- Origin Theory v The Bow-wow theory v The Pooh-pooh theory v The “Yo-he-ho” theory v The natural response theory 4) Functions of Language v What do you think are the functions of language? v Jakobsons Model (1960): based on six elements of communication Referential（所指的）- Context (语境) Emotive （情感的）- Addresser （说话者） Poetic （诗学的）- Message （信息） Conative （意动的）- Addressee（受话者） Phatic（交感的）-Contact（接触） Metalingual（元语言的）-Code（语码） v Hallidays Model: Ideational（概念功能）: convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer Interpersonal（人际功能）: express social and personal relations textual（语篇功能）: make any sketch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text (1925-), founder of systemic functional linguistics,1947-1949 studied at Beijing University, 1949-1950 studied at Ling Nan University, 1955 got doctors degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese “Secret History of the Mongols” General Functions of Language v Informative （信息功能）: to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. By use of declarative sentences e.g. Road closed！ v Interpersonal（人际功能）: to establish and maintain their status in a society. v Performative（行事功能）: the use of language to “do things”, to perform actions. Through quite formal and even ritualized language. e.g. I declare the meeting open! v Emotive（感情功能）: the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Through Jokes, Advertising, Propaganda, etc. v Directive function(指令功能): get the hearer to do sth e.g. close the book and listen to me carefully! v Phatic（寒暄功能）: the use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc. e.g. how do you do! v Interrogative function: ask for information from others e.g. what is your idea? v Expressive function: reveal speakers attitudes and feelings e.g. My God! v Recreational（娱乐功能）: the use of language for the sheer joy of using it. babys babbling, poetry, etc. v Metalingual（元语言功能）: the use of language to talk about language itself. 2. Linguistics 1) Definition Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language language: not any particular language, but the language of all human society, language in general scientific: based on systematic investigation of linguistic data Four principles of linguistic studies Exhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity 2) Significance of Linguistics? 思考： 一个人如果没有有关某一语言的语言学知识，她/他能够流利地讲这一语言吗？ 答：可以。 刘翔是因为具有了跨栏和跑步的运动力学知识，所以才成为奥运冠军的吗？ 答：应该不是。 语言是人的一部分。研究语言，人门不得不把焦点瞄准自己，到自己的大脑中去寻找答案。研究与人形影不离的语言，能帮助人类进一步认识自己。（熊学亮 2003：1） v 语言既是社会现象，是人们相互联系的纽带，但它本身的发生、传递和接受的机制又属于自然现象。语言的这种特殊的性质决定了语言学在科学体系中的特殊地位，即它既是社会科学，又与自然科学有密切的联系，可以说，语言学是介于社会科学和自然科学之间的一门特殊的学科。正由于此，语言学善于从自然科学的发展中吸取相关的理论和方法，推动语言学的发展，而其他人文社会科学又从语言学中吸取相关的理论和方法。语言学是联系社会科学和自然科学的纽带和桥梁。语言学的理论和方法在人文社会科学中处于领先的地位。 每一语言都包含着一种独特的世界观，个人更多地通过语言形成世界观（洪堡特 ）。也就是说，每一具体语言都是源出于人，反过来又作用于人，制约着人的思维和行动（姚小平）。 语言 思维 现实/科学 现代科学的世界观是根据西方印欧语言的基本语法特征概括而成的.（沃尔夫) 语言学理论对语言学习和语言教学具有方法论上的指导意义。 3) The Scope of Linguistics 思考： 语言可以分为哪些层次？ The Core of Linguistics Sound phonetics Sounds phonology Word morphology Words/sentence syntax Meaning semantics Meaning in a context pragmatics The scope or major branches of linguistics v Theoretical linguistics l Phonetics l Phonology l Morphology l Syntax l Semantics v Use of linguistics l Applied linguistics l Sociolinguistics l Psycholinguistics Theoretical linguistics v Phonetics-speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics. v Phonology-sound patterns of languages v Morphology-the form of words v Syntax-the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. v Semantics-the meaning of language v Pragmatics-the meaning of language in context Use of linguistics v Applied linguistics-linguistics and language teaching v Sociolinguistics- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use v Psycholinguistics-linguistic behavior and psychological process v Stylistics-linguistic and literature v Anthropological linguistics: anthropology & language variation and use v Neurolinguistics: brain and language v Computational linguistics: the use of computers and computer tech to do linguistic research 4) Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. descriptive: descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,. Prescriptive: If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say Synchronic vs diachronic v Synchronic study- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) v Diachronic study- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Speech vs. writing Speech is regarded as the primary medium of human language for the following reasons: A. history B. function C. acquisition order 如果说语言符号是人类走出动物界的里程碑，那么文字的产生，则是人类由野蛮社会进入文明社会的一个重要标志。（陈宗明 ） langue vs. parole (F.de Sassure) Langue: the generalized rules of a language abstract, stable, social Parole: the application of the rules concrete, changeable, individual Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, modern linguistics, semiology. Course in General Linguistics, 1916 Competence & Performance (Chomsky) v Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language v Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-), founder of TG, a revolution to structuralism. Traditional Grammar & Modern Linguistics prescriptive vs. descriptive written vs. spoken Latin-based framework vs. universal framework Linguistic potential & actual linguistic behavior (Halliday) v LP(语言潜势): with l, there is s wide range of things a speaker can do in the cultural he is in. the set of possibility for “doing” is LP from a functional l view. v ALB: what a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have said is ALB. etic & emic(唯素的和唯位的) v etic: the linguistc units containing “-etic”,such as phonetic, morphetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are used to describe things. v emic: the linguistic units containing “-emic”, such as phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes. EXERCISES v Define the following terms: 1. Linguistics 2. Language 3. Arbitrariness 4. Productivity 5. Displacement 6.Duality 7. Design Features 8. Competence 9. Performance 10. Langue 11. Parole v Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail. 2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? 4. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? 5. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? 6. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? 7. How do you understand competence and performance ? 8. Saussures distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? 9. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? In terms of manner of articulation Stops (塞音) : air stream first obstructed and then released, p , t d, and k g Fricatives(擦音): partial obstruction and local friction, f v z F V W T h Affricates(塞擦音): first complete obstruction, then frication with partial obstruction, tF dV Liquids(流音): airflow first obstructed then allowed to escape between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, l r Nasals(鼻音): air allowed to pass the nose, m n N Glides(滑音): very narrow passage between the lips and causing slight noise from the local obstruction, w j v In terms of place of articulation Bilabial(双唇音): lips brought together to cause obstruction, p m w Labiodental(唇齿音): the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, f v Dental(齿音): between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, W T alveolar(齿龈音): the tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge, t d z n l r Palatal(上腭音): obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate, F V tF dV j Velar(软腭音): back of tongue brought into contact with the soft palate, k g N glottal(喉音): vocal cords are brought together, h according to the position of tongue (which part of tongue maintained the highest) l Front vowels: i: i e A B l Central vowels: : Q l Back vowels: u: C: C B v the criteria of openness of mouth l Close vowels: i: i u: l Semi-close vowels: e : l Semi-open vowels: C: l Open vowels: A B Q C Diphthongs: ei ai Ci au u i e u 分享到: QQ空间 腾讯微博 腾讯朋友 收藏0 支持0 反对0 举报 Amy1006 Amy1006 当前离线 积分31考元142 元威望0 点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4 实习会员实习会员, 积分 31, 距离下一级还需 -11 积分串个门 加好友 打招呼 发消息 沙发 发表于 2010-10-4 16:32:29 |只看该作者 胡壮麟的语言学课件第二章Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology Focuses: 语音学的定义；三大分支；辅音的发音部位和发音方法；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 音系、音位、音位变体、自由变体；最小对立体、对立分布、互补分布；超语段音位学：音节；重音、语调、声调等。 PHONETICS1. Phonetics ：the study of the speech sounds that occur in all human lges，how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Three branches: Articulatory Phonetics : the production of speech sounds Acoustic Phonetics : the physical properties of speech sounds Auditory or Perceptual Phonetics: the perception of speech sounds2. Speech organs (those parts of human bodies involved in the production of speech):the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose, the mouthThree important areas: Pharyngeal cavity - the pharynx(咽) The oral cavity - the mouth Nasal cavity - the nose The diagram of speech organsl Lips唇l Teeth齿l Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈l Hard palatel Soft palate (velum)l Uvula小舌l Tip of tonguel Blade of tongue舌面l Back of tongue舌背l Vocal cordsl Pharyngeal cavity咽腔l Nasal cavity 鼻腔 3. Phonetic transcription IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle：one letter to represent one speech sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears. The present one mainly derives from one developed in the 1886, revised in 1993, corrected (updated) twice in 1996 and in 2005.Broad and Narrow Transcription Diacritics（发音符号/辨音符）: the set of symbols in IPA, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do. pit phit Broad transcription（宽式音标）： The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols only. spit spit Narrow transcription（严式音标）: The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. pit phit4.Classification A dichotomy: Vowels: produced with no obstruction whatsoever of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Consonants: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.Classification of consonants In terms of manner of articulation（发音器官之间的关系）: A. stops/plosives: ptdkg B. fricatives:f, v, s, z, , T, F, V ,h C. affricates: tF,dV D. liquids: lateral l, retroflex r E. nasals: m, n, F. glides/semivowels: w, jIn term of place （声道变化）of articulation: A. bilabial: p, b, m, w B. labiodental: f, v C. dental: , T D. alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, r E. palatal: F , V , tF, dV, j F. velar: k, g, G. glottal: h In terms of the state of the vocal cords: A. voiced: consonants produced when the vocal cords are closed, and the air-stream causes them to vibrate again each other. B. voiceless: consonants produced when vocal cords are apart, and air passes through easily. A. VD: /b, d, g, v, z, V , T, m, n, , l, r, j, dV/ B. VL: /p, t, k ,f, , s, F , h, w, tFClassification of vowelsA dichotomy: Monophthongs: individual vowels Diphthongs: vowels which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. ei, ai, au, u, +, i, e, u Cardinal vowels(基本元音): a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.Classification of monophthongs In terms of the position of the tongue :In terms of the openness of the mouth: A. close: B. semi-close: C. semi-open: D. open:In terms of the shape of the lips: A. unrounded: all the front vowels, central vowels, and a:. B. rounded: all the back vowels except a:.In terms of the length: A. short: I, e, Z, A, E, Q, B, u, C. B. long