语言学教程Chapter 4. From Word to Text.ppt

1 ChapterFourFromWordtoText 2 Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures 3 Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco occurrence 1 Syntacticrelations syntacticrelations 4 1 1RelationsofPosition Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject 5 Positionalrelation orWORDORDER referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall Forexample 6 Theboykickedtheball Boytheballkickedthe TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher 7 PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF deSaussure TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations 8 Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways wordorder geneticandarealclassifications toclassifylanguagesintheworld SVO VSO SOV OVS OSV andVOS EnglishbelongstoSVOtype thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder 9 1 2RelationofSubstitutability TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure The smiles manboygirl 10 Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset strongmanThetallestboysmiles prettygirlyesterday Hewenttherelastweek thedaybefore 11 ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev Tomakeitmoreunderstandable theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations 12 1 3RelationofCo occurrence Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit orrequire theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence Forinstance anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective s andfollowedbyaverbalphrase 13 Relationsofco occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations partlytoparadigmaticrelations 14 2 Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents 2 1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes anappleateanappleMaryateanapple 15 2 2ConstituentsandPhraseStructure Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction thegirl NP atetheapple VP thegirlatetheapple S 16 ImmediateConstituentAnalysis ICAnalysis Thegirlatetheapple 17 PhraseStructureTreediagram SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple 18 19 Bracketing Bracketingisnotascommoninuse butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit The girl ate the apple S NP DetThe Ngirl VP Vate NP Detthe Napple 20 2 3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents i e awordoragroupofwords whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead Usuallynounphrases verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead 21 22 Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole thatis thereisnodefinable Centre or Head insidethegroup usuallyincludingthebasicsentence theprepositionalphrase thepredicate verb object construction andtheconnective be complement construction 23 Theboysmiled Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole Hehidbehindthedoor Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial Hekickedtheball Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb objectsequence Johnseemedangry Afterdivision theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists 24 2 4CoordinationandSubordination Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents CoordinationSubordination 25 Coordination CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand butandor Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally 26 CoordinationofNPs NPthelady or NPthetiger CoordinationofVPs VPgotothelibrary and VPreadabook CoordinationofPPs PPdownthestairs and PPoutthedoor CoordinationofAPs APquiteexpensive and APverybeautiful CoordinationofSs SJohnlovesMary and SMarylovesJohntoo 27 Subordination Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers 28 twodogsHead Mybrother candrink wine HeadSwimminginthelake isfun Head Thepepperwas hotbeyondendurance Head 29 Subordinateclauses Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses complementclausesadjunct oradverbial clausesrelativeclauses 30 Johnbelieves thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman complementclause Elizabethopenedherpresents beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner adverbialclause Thewoman thatIlove ismovingtothesouth relativeclause subordinateclause 31 3 SyntacticFunction Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects objects predicators modifiers complements etc 32 3 1Subject Insomelanguages subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples paterfiliumamat thefatherlovestheson patrumfiliusamat thesonlovesthefather 33 InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent orthedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences MaryslappedJohn AdogbitBill 34 butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples Johnwasbittenbyadog Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice wehavetwootherterms grammaticalsubject John and logicalsubject adog 35 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout i e topic Again thisseemstoworkformanysentences suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow butfailsinothers suchas Jackisprettyreliable but BillIdon ttrust AsforBill Iwouldn ttakehispromisesveryseriously 36 Allthreesentencesseemtobe about Bill thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave subject 37 Wordorder Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement Sallycollectsstamps CollectsSallystamps 38 Pro forms ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions Helovesme Ilovehim Wethrewstonesatthem Theythrewstonesatus 39 可编辑 40 Agreementwiththeverb Inthesimplepresenttense an sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb Sheangershim Theyangerhim Sheangersthem 41 Contentquestions Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword whoorwhat therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged asinJohnstoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishCouncil WhostoletheQueen spicturefromtheBritishcouncil 42 WhatwouldJohnsteal ifhehadthechance WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil WheredidJohnstealtheQueen spicturefrom Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject 43 Tagquestion Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence JohnlovesMary doesn the MarylovesJohn doesn tshe JohnlovesMary doesn tshe 44 3 2Predicate Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether Itusuallyexpressesactions processes andstatesthatrefertothesubject Theboyisrunning process Peterbroketheglass action Janemustbemad state Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate 45 3 3Object Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine Since traditionally subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction objectmayrefertothe receiver or goal ofanaction anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject Motherboughtadoll Mothergavemysisteradoll IODO 46 Insomeinflectinglanguages objectismarkedbycaselabels theaccusativecasefordirectobject andthedativecaseforindirectobject InEnglish object isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder aftertheverbandpreposition andbyinflections ofpro nouns Mothergaveadolltomysister Johnkickedme 47 Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation Johnbroketheglass TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn PetersawJane JanewasseenbyPeter object 48 Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice Hediedlastweek Thematchlastedthreehours HechangedtrainsatManchester TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester 49 4 Category Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits Categoriesofthenoun number gender caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb tense aspect voice 50 4 1Number Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular dual plural etc InEnglish numberismainlyobservedinnouns andthereareonlytwoforms singularandplural suchasdog dogs Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs suchasHelaughs Theylaugh thisman thesemen 51 Inotherlanguages forexample French themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles lechevalroyal theroyalhorse leschevauxroyaux theroyalhorses 52 4 2Gender Suchcontrastsas masculine feminine neuter animate inanimate etc fortheanalysisofwordclasses Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases Forinstance inLatin ignis fire ismasculine whileflamma flame isfeminine 53 Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns and theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype he she itprince princessauthor authoress 54 InFrench genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles beaucadeau finegift bellemaison finehouse Lecadeauestbeau Thegiftisgood Lamaisonestbelle Thehouseisbeautiful 55 Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell forexample inFrench lepoele thestove lapoele thefryingpan lependule thependulum lapendule theclock 56 4 3Case Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence InLatingrammar casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword andaregiventheterms accusative nominative dative etc TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction 57 InEnglish caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun anditisrealizedinthreechannels inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher teacher swith toamanJohnkickedPeter PeterkickedJohn 58 4 4Agreement Agreement orconcord maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory orcategories 59 Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent Whoseisthispen Oh it stheoneIlost oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin 60 Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs Thismanruns Thebirdflies Thesemenrun Thesebirdsfly 61 SentenceClausePhraseWord 5 Phrase ClauseandSentence 62 thethreetallestgirls nominalphrase hasbeendoing verbalphrase extremelydifficult adjectivalphrase tothedoor prepositionalphrase veryfast adverbialphrase phrase 63 64 Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly It sgreatforamantobefree Havingfinishedtheirtask theycametohelpus Johnbeingaway Billhadtodothework Filledwithshame heleftthehouse Alloursavingsgone westartedlookingforjobs It snousecryingoverspiltmilk Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow 65 Sentence traditionalapproach simpleSentencecomplexnon simplecompound 66 Sentence functionalapproach Yes noInterrogativeIndicativewh DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptative 67 Basicsentencetypes Bolinger Motherfell Nominal intransitiveverbal Motherisyoung Nominal copula complement MotherlovesDad Nominal transitiveverbal nominal MotherfedDadbreakfast Nominal transitiveverbal nominal nominal Thereistime There existential nominal 68 Basicsentencetypes Quirk SVCMaryiskind anurse SVAMaryishere inthehouse SVThechildislaughing SVOSomebodycaughttheball SVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong afool SVOAIputtheplateonthetable SVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents 69 6 Recursiveness Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination conjoiningandembedding hypotacticandparatactic Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences Howlongcanasentencebe 70 Theoretically thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew 71 John ssisterJohn ssister shusbandJohn ssister shusband suncleJohn ssister shusband suncle sdaughter etc thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing 72 6 1Conjoining Conjoining coordination Conjunctions and but andor Johnboughtaha