motivation introduction to psychology, 7th edition, james w kalat 动机心理学导论，第七版，杰姆斯w卡拉特

Chapter 11Motivation,Motivation,MotivationPsychologists have made strides in understanding complicated motivated behaviors.But many human motivations are still puzzling or seem illogical when scrutinized.We will begin with some general principles of motivation, and then examine three areas of interest: hunger, the sex drive, and achievement.,Module 11.1,General Principles of MotivationWhat are you most highly motivated for? Create a top-five12345,Properties of Motivated Behavior,Characteristics of motivated behavior:They are goal directed behaviors motivated individuals keep working until they reach their goal.They vary from time to time and one individual to the next.If an individual varies the behavior and persists until reaching a goal, it is a motivated behavior.,Views of Motivation,It is hard to develop a satisfactory definition of motivationThere are several frameworks that are used in psychology to understand what motivation is.,Views of Motivation,Motivation as an energyThe word motivation is derived from the same root as “motion” something that moves an organism.Lorenz and others proposed that animals behave in instinctive ways when certain energies reach a critical level.It is as if a specific kind of energy builds up and needs to be released, if it is not released through the preferred outlet, it will “spill” through a less preferred one.Motivation as energy building up in reservoirs .,Views of Motivation,Motivation as an energyThis view is based upon an obsolete conception of how the nervous system works.We now understand that individuals can inhibit impulses towards a disadvantageous behavior; there is no “spilling” of unreleased energy.,Views of Motivation,Drive theoriesA drive is a state of unrest or irritation that energizes one behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation. (e.g., splinter)Drive-reduction theory proposes that animals strive to reduce their drives as much as possible.Can you use drive reduction theory to explain the following needs?RestExerciseMoneyPowerSelf expressionCan you use drive reduction theory to explain your top 5 needs?,Views of Motivation,Drive theoriesBy extension, drive-reduction theory would predict that once all needs have been met, the organism would become inactive.People seek variety and activity in life, not a condition of non-stimulation.The theory ignores the role of external stimulation. Interest in food depends not only on hunger but also on what foods are available.,Views of Motivation,Homeostasis-an important advance on drive-reduction theoriesHomeostasis is the maintenance of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism.Conditions such as temperature, hydration, nutrition, and weight are maintained at a state of equilibrium.Unlike drive-reduction theory, in homeostasis it is necessary for the organism to expend energy to maintain the optimum state.,Views of Motivation,HomeostasisThe homeostasis framework overlooks the power of new stimuli to arouse behavior.Humans also will adjust current behavior or consumption in anticipation of future needs. A person may eat one large meal in anticipation of skipping the next one, for example.,Views of Motivation,Incentive theoriesIncentives are external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions.Most motivated behaviors are controlled by a combination of drives (internal behaviors that push us from within) and incentives (external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions).You eat because you are hungry and also because you are standing in front of a restaurant offering appealing sights and smells of food.Can you use push and pull principles to explain the following needs?RestExerciseMoneyPowerSelf expression,Intrinsic and extrinsic motivationsAn intrinsic motivation is a motivation to do an act for its own sake.An extrinsic motivation is based on the reinforcements and punishments that may follow an action.Most motivated behaviors result from a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.,Views of Motivation,Intrinsic and extrinsic motivationsSometimes providing extrinsic motivations for a behavior that are already intrinsically motivated may result in a reduction of the performance of that behavior.This effect is known as overjustification.Overjustification predicts that if people are given more extrinsic motivation than needed to perform a task, the intrinsic motivation declines.,Views of Motivation,Figure11.2 Monkeys learned to remove the pin, hook, and hasp in that order to open this device. When they started receiving a raisin instead of opening it just for fun, their performance deteriorated.,Table11.1 Four views of motivation,Concept Check:,You enjoy taking guitar lessons. Would it increase or decrease your interest if your parents offered to pay you for practicing?,According to overjustification, it would decrease your interest.,Types of Motivation,Primary and secondary motivationPrimary motivations are automatic, built-in processes (e.g., food and water)Secondary motivations develop as a result of specific learning experiences. You learn to perform these behaviors because they bring you closer to satisfying primary motivations.These motivations are analogous to the conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers that we discussed in the chapter on learning,Concept Check:,Is your interest in getting in “A” in this class an example of a primary or secondary motivation?,A secondary motivation,Many Types of Motivation,We understand some motivations that are directly related to survival, but still puzzle over those that seem to have nothing to do with staying alive.Unusual behaviors are most likely driven by a combination of motivating factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic in origin.,Module 11.3,Sexual Motivation,What Do People Do, and How Often?,There are many academic and scientific reasons to research the habits and attitudes of human beings regarding sexuality.Most of us also are just plain curious and wonder “Am I normal?”,What Do People Do, and How Often?,The answer to that question depends on what we mean by “normal.”“A nymphomaniac is someone who wants more sex than you do.” - Alfred Kinsey,The Kinsey Survey,Alfred C. Kinsey conducted the first major survey of human sexual behavior.He had a large sample, but it was not randomly gathered and since it was from only one area of the United States, cannot be considered representative.His results are still useful in that they are indicative of the wide variation in human sexual habits and attitudes.,Contemporary Surveys,Surveys from the 1980s and 1990s have been more successful in obtaining random and representative samplesResults suggest that the most popular sexual activities are vaginal sex, oral sex, and watching ones partner undress.Men indicate stronger preferences for activities such as masturbation and casual sex than do women.The number of partners reported in the past year tends to be greatest in young adulthood.,Figure11.12 The percentage of U.S. adults who rate various sexual activities as “very appealing,” as opposed to “somewhat appealing,” “not appealing,” or “not at all appealing.” (Based on data of Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994),Sexual Behavior in the Era of AIDS,AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome is a sexually transmitted disease that gradually destroys the bodys immune system.The virus does not survive long outside of body fluids and must enter a persons blood.,Sexual Behavior in the Era of AIDS,The three most common modes of transmission are blood transfusion, sharing needles for IV drug use, and sexual contact.Information campaigns have had limited success in promoting condom use, abstinence and other “safe sex” strategies even in places where the disease affects a large proportion of the population.,Sexual Identity and Orientation,People vary in their sexual preferences.Gender identity is the sex that a person regards him- or herself as being.Sexual orientation is a persons preference for male partners, female partners, both, or neither.People who prefer partners of their own sex are referred to as homosexual; those who like partners of both sexes are called bisexual.,Influences on Sexual Anatomy,The human fetus starts off with a “unisex” body structure.Hormonal influences starting in the seventh or eighth week of prenatal development determine whether a fetus becomes anatomically male or female.Male fetuses generally secrete higher levels of the hormone testosterone than do females. Testosterone causes the development of a penis and scrotum in males.Lower levels of testosterone in female fetuses are responsible for the development of the clitoris and labia.,Figure11.16 The human genitals look the same in male and female fetuses for about the first 6 or 7 weeks after conception (a).,Figure11.16 (cont.) Differences begin to emerge over the next couple of months (b) and are well developed at birth (c),Figure11.16 (cont.) Differences begin to emerge over the next couple of months (b) and are well developed at birth (c),Influences on Sexual Anatomy,Levels of estrogen increase in females at this time and influence internal female development.Some fetuses develop into individuals who have an intermediate appearance between male and female. These individuals are referred to as intersexes.These individuals used to be surgically altered to create either a distinct male or female appearance, but this practice is no longer common because of the many problems it created for intersex individuals when they matured,Concept Check:,In order for a fetus to develop a male appearance, which hormone must be present in sufficient quantity?,Testosterone,Influences on Sexual Orientation,Sexual preference is most accurately viewed as falling along a continuum.A small number of people who identify as gay or lesbian have had heterosexual experiences.A small number of people who identify as straight have had at least one homosexual experience as adults, and about 9% of males have had a homosexual contact as adolescents.,Figure11.18 The percentages of U.S. adults who report sexual activity or interest in sexual activity with people of their own sex. (Based on data of Laumann et al., 1994),Influences on Sexual Orientation,Attitudes towards homosexuality are culturally determined and have changed repeatedly over the course of human history.In ancient Greece and Rome it was considered normal for men to engage in occasional sexual activities with each other.In more recent times in Western Europe, homosexuality has been viewed as a criminal activity, a sin, or to the more enlightened person, a sign of mental illness.The idea that homosexuality was a sign of mental illness has persisted up until very recently.,Figure11.19 Comparisons of the results of surveys conducted in five countries, in which people were asked whether they had had homosexual experiences. (Based on data of Izazola-Licea, Gortmaker, Tolbert, De Gruttola, Wellings, Field, Johnson, & Wadsworth, 1994),Influences on Sexual Orientation,This impression was perpetuated by the fact that mental health practitioners only encountered emotionally troubled gay and lesbian individuals; those without serious issues did not seek mental health treatment.Recent studies suggest that homosexual people may experience a fair amount of depression and alcohol abuse, but most are mentally healthy and well adjusted.Psychologists and psychiatrists now view homosexuality as a normal variation in sexual motivation.,Influences on Sexual Orientation,Some researchers are inquiring about what causes people to develop their sexual preference.Most available research has been done using samples of gay males.Twin studies suggest that genetic factors contribute to sexual orientation.Hormone levels in adults do NOT play a role in sexual preference although prenatal hormone levels may play a role.,Figure11.20 The probability of a homosexual orientation is higher among monozygotic twins of adult homosexuals than among their dizygotic twins. The probability is higher among dizygotic twins than among adopted brothers or sisters who grew up in the same family. These data suggest a possible genetic role in the development of sexual orientation. (Based on results of Bailey Bailey, Pillard, Neale, & Agyei, 1993),Influences on Sexual Orientation,The research of Simon LeVay has provided evidence that the INAH3 section of the anterior hypothalamus is larger in straight men than in gay men or women. This may also relate to sexual orientation.The research of LeVay and others is new and requires replication. It is likely that sexual orientation is formed through a combination of biological predispositions and experiences. All conclusions in this area at this time are tentative at best.,Biology, Society and Sexual Motivation,Human sexual motivation and behavior reflects interplay of biology, experience and context.The development of sexual interest and preference is most likely the end result of biology and experience.Research on the psychology of sex and sexuality is very new and much remains to be learned.,Module 11.4,Achievement Motivation,The Need for Achievement,The need for achievement is a striving for accomplishment and excellence.People tend to describe this in themselves in terms of the extrinsic motivation involved the attainment of rewards.There is also an intrinsic need for achievement, the accomplishment of goals for their own sake.,The Need for Achievement and Setting Goals,Individuals who are experiencing a strong fear of failure, the concern with avoiding defeat rather than achieving success, may choose either very easy or almost impossible goals.In low-pressure situations, those with fear of failure tend to put forth a good effort, but if told that the task is of crucial importance, they exert less effort.,High and Low Goals,Very high goals tend to promote good performance, as long as the goals seem realistic.Students and workers must have enough ability to attain the goals.They must take the goals seriously.They need to receive specific and frequent feedback.Challenging goals require intrinsic motivation, rewards are less motivating for difficult goals than they are for easy goals.,Figure11.22 Conditions for high activity toward achieving goals.,Job Design,Should jobs be designed to be challenging and interesting, or simple and foolproof?According to the scientific-management approach, or Theory X, most employees are lazy, indifferent and not creative. Work should be easy to perform and strictly supervised.According to the human-relations approach, or Theory Y, employees crave a sense of responsibility, variety of tasks, and a feeling of accomplishment.,Job Satisfaction,Job SatisfactionJob satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors.Some factors are related to the job interest level, pay, coworkers and management.The employees personality is also a factor.Job satisfaction appears to be heritable if other people in your family are happy with their work, chances are you will be also.,Job Satisfaction,Job SatisfactionIn general job satisfaction is strongly related to overall life satisfaction.Most adults say they are satisfied with their work, but also say that they would choose a different job if they could “start over.”Younger workers generally report being less satisfied than older workers.Few people change jobs once they have reached middle age.,Job Satisfaction,Job SatisfactionWhat about the influence of pay on job satisfaction?It appears to be very important, although probably not the most important consideration.The perception that the pay level is fair is crucial. People will work at a lower-paying job that offers a deep sense of accomplishment.,Figure11.24 Psychologists propose several reasons why most older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger workers do.,Leadership,How hard one works at a job is also influenced by perceptions of how your organization is led.It is hard to measure the qualities of an effective leader.In describing the characteristics of an effective leader, an interesting distinction has been made between two main types.Transformational leaders articulate a vision for the future, and challenge and motivate subordinates to be creative in improving the organization.Transactional leaders try to make the organization more efficient at what it already does, usually through the use of incentives.,Leadership,The types are not mutually exclusive. Some leaders have features of both types, and some have none.Transformational leaders tend to be viewed as effective across a variety of contexts.Transactional leaders are described as more effective in stable organizations where activities tend not to vary in the long run.,Achievement Motivation,Unlike hunger, the motivation for achievement is complicated by the fact that there rarely is a point of satiety.People who achieve major goals tend to set new ones and begin striving for them.We would probably be distressed if we had no further goals.,Achievement Motivation,“(People) like the process of attaining, but do not quite like to have attained.”- Fyodor Dostoevsky,Module 11.2,Hunger MotivationFood selection depends on a combination of physiological, social, and cognitive factors.,Motives in Food Selection,Food selection based on tasteSome taste preferences are present at birth.E.g., infants like sweet, and reject bitter and sourHumans and mammals prefer the taste of fat.Temporary taste cravings are reported by most people on occasion, and most are difficult to explain.,Motives in Food Selection,Preference for familiar foodsThe human taste sense is uniform among all people, but people from different parts of the world exhibit different taste preferences.Peoples food preferences are heavily influenced by familiarity.Cuisine is one of the most stable and defining features of any culture. People are cautious about eating things that are unfamiliar. Whats the strangest thing youve ever eaten?,Motives in Food Selection,Learned association with foodAnimals and