地理科学100年翻译+赵祖平.docx

11 Conclusion:into：the twenty-First Century11 Conclusion:into the twenty-First CenturyEarth science is a broad field encompassing a number of specialties. This book has touched on some of the major and minor contributions to the field in the last hundred years, and how the science has changed, but the history discussed in this book is in no way exhaustive. Developments in marine geology, oceanography, and atmospheric scienceall Earth sciences in their own rightare presented in more detail in other books in this series. Many Earth scientists, in their search for understanding the origins of life and the evolution of life on our planet, have become involved in the advancements in planetary science, astrobiology, and archaeology. The Apollo astronauts relied on Earth as an analogue for their mission to the Moon. Those who will walk on the Moon again in the future must first understand Earths biogeochemical cycles to appreciate the history and complexity of the lunar landscape, or any other planetary object humans dare to explore, such as Mars, Europa, or the asteroid 2002 AA29 discovered in 2002 that shares Earths orbit around the Sun and in 600 years will again orbit Earth as a second natural satellite with the Moon.地球科学是一个广泛的领域涵盖多个专业。这本书介绍了这个领域在过去一个世纪以来的一些主要的和次要的贡献，以及科学如何改变，但是这本书没有详尽讨论这段历史。目前，在地球科学领域里面，另外一本书将更加详细的介绍海洋地质学、海洋学和大气学的研究进展。许多地球科学家，在生物学和考古学方面，他们搜索理解关于我们的行星在生命起源和进化方面，已经成为行星科学的进步。阿波罗宇航员依靠地球模拟他们的月球任务。将来不论谁再一次行走在月球上他必先理解地球的生物地球化学循环去鉴别月球的历史和月球风景的复杂性，或者其他任何人敢于探索其他行星如：火星，木卫二，或者如2002年发现小星行2002AA29,分享着地球轨道围绕着太阳运动，它将在600年后再次进入地球轨道，届时将成为地球的第二颗天然卫星。Like the monarch butterflies that take many generations to complete their species migration across North America, humans must also consider their long-term goals for future generations when burning fossil fuels, consuming energy, applying fertilizers, establishing and adhering to regulations on atmospheric chemicals, and populating areas with known natural hazards. An understanding of the Earth sciences can help in these decisions. Many earthquake-prone regions have yet to develop building codes, properly enforce them, or update older structures to the newer codes. Even in California, where the hazard is common knowledge, U.S. Geological Survey seismologists Susan Hough and Lucy Jones warned that some schools built before 1970 have yet to modernize to 1990 standards. “In 1990, the provisions of the Field Act were extended to strengthen requirements for new (although not existing) private schools, although charter schools and day-care centers remain exempt,” they wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle in 2002. Earth scientists have taken on the responsibility in modern society of moving beyond educating, informing, and advising on what can be done to advocating what should be done to prepare for natural disasters before they strike. Some are more comfortable with this responsibility than others. USGS volcanologists who assist other countries typically advise civil authorities on the importance of an evacuation plan and the inherent dangers involved with the specific volcano they are helping to monitorrather than call for an evacuation themselves, for fear of being wrong and not being taken seriously the next time an evacuation is needed; for fear of being right and not having the publics immediate trust to convince them of their need to leave their homes and property. People educated and knowledgeable about the risks and dangers of a potential natural disaster in their area are more likely to make the right decisions and take appropriate and immediate action. In Papua New Guinea when Rabaul volcanos Tavurvur crater began erupting in 1994, the people in the city of Rabaul left before any evacuation order was made. In October 2006 volcanologists again reported the city had “self-evacuated” when the volcano started coughing up ash and lapilli.像帝王蝶一样，需要几代才能完成他们横跨北美洲进行物种迁移，当我们燃烧化石燃料，消耗能源，施用肥料，建立和执行大气化学法规，以及发生在居住区的自然灾害时，人类也必须为子孙后代考虑他们的长远目标。对地球科学的理解有助于对这些做出决定。许多地震多发地区尚未制定建筑规范，正确地执行它们，或更新旧建筑规范。即使在美国加利福尼亚州，危险也是常识。地质调查局地震学家苏珊霍夫和露西琼斯警告说，一些学校在1970年以前建成尚未现代化，未达到到1990年的标准。在1990年，法力延伸加强了对民办学校新的要求（虽然不存在）。虽然特许学校和日托中心保留其豁免权，2002年他们在“旧金山纪事报”里写道。地球科学家超越了现代教育中的责任，在他们罢工前，有责任告知人们该如何准备应对自然灾害。有些人比其他人更有这个责任。美国地质勘探局的火山学家协助其他国家通常建议民政当局重视对疏散计划的重要性和固有的危险，他们帮助监测而不是撤离自己，恐慌是错误的应当正确对待下一次撤离；恐惧的权利，而不是公众的直接信任，说服他们需要离开自己的家园和财产受过教育和知识渊博的人对他们地区潜在的自然灾害的风险和危害更有可能做出正确的决策，并采取适当的紧急行动。1994年巴布亚新几内亚拉包尔火山的乌鲁火山开始爆发，拉包尔市的人民离开之前，没有作出任何疏散令。2006年10月火山学家再次报道了城市“自我疏散“当火山开始喷发火山灰和火山砾时。Unfortunately in many situations people do not understand the risks, tend to underestimate the consequences of inaction, make wrong decisions, and, if they survive, become dependent on others for help. Evacuations can be economically costly, put personal and commercial property at risk to looters, and cause a great deal of stress to the evacuating population and the areas receiving them. Authorities recognize this and do not make evacuation orders lightly. In cases where an evacuation order is not made in time, or at all, the public is left to act on their own. Without the preparation and education to recognize the signs of danger, it is impossible to expect anything other than disastrous consequences. Such was the case during the 2004 Sumatra tsunami. The Pacific Ocean is a region renowned for tsunamis; a warning system is in place, signs are posted on beaches, drills are conducted, and the public is for the most part aware of the risk. Few people in the countries with coastlines in the Indian Ocean studied the risk of tsunamis in their own backyard. When on December 26, 2004, an earthquake of magnitude 9.3 struck off the coast of Sumatra, few people in Indonesia at the time were aware that a tsunami might follow. Few people who saw the waves at the beach suddenly pull back into the sea, as if the area was experiencing an exception-ally fast onset of a low tide, knew to run to higher ground for safety, to shout out to those around them to do the same, to warn the laborers in the low-lying fields of the approaching wave. Three hundred thousand people died.不幸的是，在许多情况下，人们不理解的风险，往往低估了无所作为的后果，做出错误的决定，并且，如果它们存活下来，变得依赖别人的帮助。疏散经济成本很高，这提高了个人和商业财产风险抢劫，引起了疏散人口的压力而且不得不接受这一现实。当局理解这一点并对疏散令不敢掉以轻心。如果在没有及时疏散令的时候，留给公众的只有自发的行为了。如果没有接受在编教育是不可能认识到任何自然灾害后果的。2004年苏门答腊岛的海啸证实了这一情况。太平洋是一个著名的海啸多发区，这里有完善的应对海啸的系统，沙滩上张贴有关海啸的宣传海报，并对人们进行应对海啸的演练，因而公众都能意识到这一风险。在印度洋沿岸的国家很少有人对海啸风险的演练宣传。在2004年12月26日，一场9.3级的地震袭击了苏门答腊岛的海岸，当时在印度尼西亚很少有人意识到可能随之而来的海啸。一些人看到海浪突然退回大海，有经验的人知道这是一次低潮蓄能而且回袭很快，应当喊那些正在低潮区工作的人共同提醒其他人，撤离到更高的安全区域。这次海啸造成30万人死亡。Training and education of tsunami risk would have helped, but it is not enough. Sometimes the signs of impeding disaster are too subtle to notice. The Australian plate, which on average creeps 2.3 inches (59 mm) a year in route under Indonesia, staggered on July 17, 2006. The earth-quake struck northeast of Christmas Island, and 124 miles (200 km) southThe Sri Lanka coastline before the 2004 tsunami (NASA) 2004年海啸前，斯里兰卡海岸线（NASA）The Sri Lanka coastline on December 26, 2004, during tsunami flooding (NASA)2004年12月26日海啸洪水期间，斯里兰卡的海岸线（NASA）of Pangandaran, Java, Indonesia. The distance and physical characteristics of the seafloor dampened the land-shaking effects of the magnitude 7.7 quake, but not the amount of water it displaced. Those inside buildings and homes in Jakarta felt the earthquake, but few walking outside noticed anything more than a slight tremor. If they looked to the beach the already low tide revealed no obvious change. Those near the shore did not know a tsunami was racing toward them until after the first wave began flooding the coast. Seismometers on the other side of the globe in Hawaii recorded the earthquake, but there is only so much seismologists an ocean away can do. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii issued an alert, 17 minutes after the earthquake. The warning was not communicated to people on the coast of Indonesia in time. A wave at least 6 feet (1.8 m) in height carried away boats, buildings, and people. The tsunami left 730 people dead. A similar earthquake in 1994 in the region had produced a tsunami with a wave 43 feet (13 m) high and killed more than 200 people.海啸风险的教育和培训是很有帮组的，但这还不够。有时过于细微的通知妨碍灾害信息的传递。2006年7月17日测得，澳大利亚板块，以每年2.3英寸（59毫米）的速度俯冲到印度尼西亚板块之下。地震袭击了圣诞岛的东北部，以124英里（200公里）的速度传播到了庞岸达兰南部，爪哇，印度尼西亚。由于距离和物理特性，使得海底7.7级的地震，没有造成多少海水流走，在雅加达建筑内和家里面的人感觉到了震感，但在户外散步的人们没有丝毫觉察。如果人们到海边去看低潮不会发现有任何变化。哪些靠进海边人不知道海啸会急速跟来，直到海浪第一次涌上海滩。在地球的另一边夏威夷地震仪器记录到了这些，地震学家也就只能做到这些了。地震发生后17分钟后，太平洋海啸预报中心发出了警报，但是，警报没能及时传到印度尼西沿岸的人们哪里。高达6英尺（1.8米）的海浪，冲进了船只，建筑物和人群。这次，海啸造成730人死亡。1994年在该地区的一个类似的地震产生的海啸波高43英尺（13米），造成200多人死亡。The risk of a tsunami is not a new phenomenon in the Indian Ocean; but it is still one the countries are ill prepared to handle, even two years after the 2004 disaster. On January 24, 2007, 21 countries participated in the first test of satellite phones planned for use in a future Indian Ocean tsunami warning system. When the call went out at 6 a.m. six countries reported receiving the alert within two minutes: India, Madagascar, Maldives, Mozambique, Frances Runion Island, and Thailand. Sri Lanka reported receiving the call within 10 minutes, East Timor after 18 minutes, and others hours later. Bangladesh, Kenya, and Mauritius did not respond at all. It will be years before the Indian Ocean tsunami warning system is complete; in the meantime education and low-tech warnings such as signs are critical to keep people safe. Understanding the dynamics of plate tectonics, the workings of the Earths interior and how that impacts the crust are vital in the 21st century.在印度洋海啸的风险不是一个新的现象，但它仍然是一个国家没有准备好如何应对他，甚至在2004年灾难之后。 2007年1月24日，有21个国家参加计划在将来使用卫星电话发出海啸警告的第一次测试。早上6点出门六个国家：印度，马达加斯加，马尔代夫，莫桑比克，法国留尼汪岛和泰国将在两分钟内接到警告。斯里兰卡将在10分钟内警告，18分钟后，东帝汶和他国家接收到警告。但是，孟加拉国，肯尼亚，毛里求斯没有收到警告。如果，这是几年前印度洋海啸预警系统，那么，这是完整的，在此期间，教育和警示标志等，对确保人生安全至关重要。在21世纪，理解动力学的板块构造，地球内部的运作形式，以及他们如何相应地壳至关重要。2511 Conclusion:into the twenty-First CenturyVolcanoesVolcanoesJanuary 3, 2007, marked 24 years of lava flowing from Kilaueas vent Puu Oo on Hawaii. The eruption that started in 1983 will likely continue pouring lava through underground lava tubes into the sea for many years to come. The area is dangerous to tourists because most of the fresh hot lava is under a thin black crust; roofs on inland lava tubes and lava-formed cliffs over the sea can collapse. Cracks in the crust expose areas where the lava can be seen glowing red at night. Volcanologists with the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory don heat-resistant clothing and tread carefully on older Pahoehoe lava flows that they determine are thick enough to be safe in order to conduct their studies on the basalt flows. Currently, an extension of new volcanic land 55 acres across is poised to crumble into the ocean.2007年1月3日，有24年历史的熔岩流从Kilaueas 山流出Puu Oo 到夏威夷。1983年喷发的火山，可能会继续通过地下熔岩管道将岩浆注入大海。在该地区旅游的旅客是危险的，应为在黑色的熔岩外壳下新鲜的熔岩正从下面通过，熔岩管道在越过海和海相撞顶部形成熔岩悬崖。地壳裂缝暴露熔岩的地方，晚上可以看到红彤彤的熔岩。火山学家确定在夏威夷火山观测站，在旧的Pahoehoe熔岩流上穿不耐热衣服进行科学研究考察是安全的，应为这里熔岩壳足够厚够安全。现在，新的熔岩被达到55亩，其即将延伸崩塌到海里。Mount Etna on Sicily, Italy, has erupted every year since the 21st century began. In fact, only four or five years since 1877 has Etna not had an eruption explode from one of its craters. In 2006, seismologist Domenico Patan of Italys National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology in Catania and colleagues reported mapping the movement of magma through the interior of the volcano using time-lapse seismic profiles: “Time-Resolved Seismic Tomography Detects Magma Intrusions at Mount Etna.” The Sicilian volcano is also attracting those interested in sound patterns. Geophysicists are also experimenting with converting Mount Etnas seismic patterns into volcanic melodies using Domenico Vicinanzas music pattern recognition (data sonification) software at the Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics. Perhaps with further study, evacuation sirens in the future will be accompanied by the musical sounds of the volcano itself. Nicolas Houli of the University of California at Berkeley uses satellite images of Mount Etna and other volcanoes to examine tree growth. He and colleagues are finding that the taller, greener vegetation tends to grow in areas where the volcano is most likely to fissure. They hypothesize that added carbon dioxide and water vapor to the soil from cracks in the volcanos structure may be a reason for the forests boost in greenness.21世纪以来，意大利的西西里岛的埃特纳火山，每年都喷发。事实上，自1877年以来，埃特纳火山只有四五年没有喷发。在2006年，意大利国家地球物理和火山研究所的Domenico Patan和卡塔尼亚的同时报道通过使用时间推移地震剖面研究火山内部岩浆活动：“通过时间X断层扫描成像技术探测埃特纳火山岩浆侵入活动”。西西里岛的火山也吸收这些有趣的声音模式。在意大利国家核物理研究所，地球物理学家也在尝试用声音识别软件（超声波数据处理）把埃特纳火山的地震模式转换成Domenico Vicinanza的声音模式。进一步研究，或许将来的疏散警报器将伴随火山本身的音乐声音。加州大学伯克利分校的尼古拉斯Houli使用的埃特纳火山和其他火山的卫星影像检查树木的生长情况。他和他的同事们发现，在哪些长势高，颜色绿色植被地区，是最有可能为火山裂隙的区域。他们推测，加入的二氧化碳和从火山结构裂缝中渗入到土壤中的水蒸汽可能是在绿色森林的增加的一个原因。Like a litmus test, the color of Lake Voui in the crater of Aoba volcano, Vanuatu, in the South Pacific changed from blue to red in late May of 2006. The change in color followed a series of explosions since November 2005. Strangely, the volcanos other crater lake, Lake Manaro Ngoru, remained turquoise blue. The volcanologists observing the Aoba explained the red coloring as the result of iron oxidation in Lake Loui.像一块试金石一样，2006年5月下旬，在南太平洋，瓦努阿图奥巴岛Voui火山口湖，颜色由蓝变红。自从2005年10月颜色变化遵循一系列规律。奇怪的是其他火山口湖，如Manaro Ngoru火山口湖仍然保持翠蓝色。火山学家观察奥巴岛火山口路易湖解释颜色变化时由氧化铁所致。Currently non-erupting volcanoes under close surveillance include Vesuvius in Italy and in the United States: the Three Sisters in Oregon and Mount Rainier in Washington. Since 2000, the following volcanoes have erupted cataclysmically with ejecta reaching 6 miles (10 km) or more above sea level:目前，没有喷发的火山处在监视之下，包括意大利的维苏威火山和美国的俄勒冈州以及华盛顿州的雷尼尔山脉的三姐妹。自2000年以来，这些火山猛烈喷发，抛出物达到6公里之高（10公里）或者达到更高的海拔。 Racal, Manam, and Ulawun volcanoes in Papua New GuineaRacal, Manam,和Ulawun 三座火山，坐落于巴布亚新几内亚 Reventador volcano in EcuadorReventador火山坐落于厄瓜多尔 Ruang volcano in the Sangihe Island arc of IndonesiaRuang火上坐落于印度尼西亚Sangihe岛弧链山 Shiveluch volcano on Russias Kamchatka PeninsulaShiveluch火山坐落于俄罗斯的勘察加半岛上 Other volcanoes active in the 21st century include:21世纪活动的火山包括： Akan, Suwanose-jima and Miyake-jima, JapanKarymsky and Bezymianny, Russia日本的阿寒，诹访之濑岛和三宅岛俄罗斯的Karymsky和Bezymianny, Pagan (Mariana Islands), Anatahan (Mariana Islands), 马里亚纳群岛的Pagan，北马里亚纳群岛 Atka (Alaska), Cleveland (Alaska), Veniaminof (Alaska), Fourpeaked (Alaska), Augustine (Alaska), and St. Helens (Washington), United States美国阿拉斯加州的阿特卡、克利夫兰、Veniaminof、Fourpeaked、奥古斯丁以及华盛顿州的St.海伦 Soufrire Hills (Montserrat), United Kingdom大不列颠联合王国英属殖民地蒙特塞拉特岛的Soufrire山 Popocatpetl, Mxico墨西哥的Popocatpetl Fuego and Pacaya, Guatemala危地马拉的Fuego和Pacaya Santa Ana, El SalvadorEL萨尔多瓦的Santa Ana San Cristbal, Nicaragua尼加拉瓜的San Cristbal Pos, Costa Rica哥斯达黎加的Pos Galeras, Colombia哥伦比亚的Galeras Ubinas, Per秘鲁的Ubinas Lscar and Villarrica, Chile智利的Lscar and Villarrica Montagu Island, South Sandwich Islands澳大利亚的蒙塔古岛和英国的桑威奇岛 Grmsvtn, Iceland冰岛的Grmsvtn Etna, Italy意大利的Etna The Lokbatan mud volcano, Azerbaijan阿塞拜疆的The Lokbatan泥火山 Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira, Democratic Republic of the Congo刚果民主共和国的Nyiragongo 和 Nyamuragira Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania坦桑尼亚的Ol Doinyo Lengai Karthala, Comoros科摩罗的Karthala Piton de la Fournaise (Runion Island) France法国的Piton de la Fournaise（Runion 岛） Barren Island, India印度的Barren 岛 Canlaon, Bulusan and Mayon, Philippines菲律宾的坎拉翁、布卢桑和梅奥 Merapi, Soputan, Talang, Karangetang (Api Siau), and the Lusi mud volcano, Indonesia印度尼西亚的默拉皮火山，Soputan，Talang，卡兰吉田火山（API Siau），和Lusi泥火山 Bagana, Ulawun, Sulu Range, Ritter Island, and Langila, Papua New Guinea巴布亚新几内亚的Bagana, Ulawun, Sulu Range,里特岛和Langila Heard, Australia澳大利亚的Heard Tinakula, Soloman Islands所罗门群岛的Tinakula Lopevi and Aoba, Vanuatu 瓦努阿图的Lopevi 和 Aoba Home Reef, Tonga汤加的霍姆礁 Raoul Island and Ruapehu, New Zealand新西兰的Raoul 岛和 Ruapehu Twentieth Century eruptions ongoing in 2007 include:21世纪2007年不间断喷发的火山包括： Yasur, Vanuatu (since or before 1774)瓦努阿图的Yasur（自从1774年以后） Santa Mara, Guatemala (since June 22, 1922)危地马拉的Santa Mara（自从1922年6月22日以后） Dukono, Indonesia (since August 13, 1933)印度尼西亚的Dukono（自从1933年8月13日以后） Stromboli, Italy (since February 2, 1934)意大利的Stromboli（自从1934年2月2日以后） Sangay, Ecuador (since August 8, 1934)厄瓜多尔的Sangay（自从1934年8月8日以后） Sakura-jima, Japan (since October 13, 1955)日本樱岛（自从1955年10月13日以后） Erta Ale, Ethiopia (since in or before 1967)埃塞俄比亚的Erta Ale（自从1967年前后之后） Semeru, Indonesia (since August 31, 1967)印度尼西亚的Semeru（自从1967年8月31日以后） Arenal, Costa Rica (since July 29, 1968)哥斯达黎加的Arenal（自从1968年7月29日以后） Erebus, Antarctica (since in or before December 1972)南极洲的Erebus（自从1972年12月前后之后） Kilauea, United States (since January 3, 1984)美国的Kilauea（自从1984年1月3日之后） Colima, Mxico (since November 22, 1997)墨西哥的Colima（自从1997年12月22日之后） Shiveluch, Russia (since August 15, 1999)俄罗斯的Shiveluch（1999年8月15日之后） Tungurahua, Ecuador (since October 5, 1999)厄瓜多尔的Tungurahua（自从1999年10月5日之后）Volcanoes present a variety of dangers, not always from eruptions. Experts working to safeguard the public are the ones who put themselves at most risk. Mammoth Mountain, famous for its Southern California ski slopes, actively vents carbon dioxide from fumaroles. The gas collects around the base of trees and in snow-covered fissures, usually marked by ski patrol as an off-limits area. In April 2006, a ski patrol team was fixing a fence around a fissure when two of them fell about 15 feet (5 m) into a hole 6 feet (2 m) in diameter. A thi