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ContentsAbstractAbstract in ChineseIntroduction1. Literature Review 1.1 Dynamic Equivalence by E. Nida1.1.1 The Definition of Dynamic Equivalence1.1.2 Three Key Terms in Dynamic Equivalence 1.2 Communicative Translation by P. Newmark 1.2.1 Translation Typology 1.2.2 Communicative Translation2. Characteristics of Notices and Warnings 2.1 Functional Features 2.1.1 The Function of Prompting 2.1.2 The Function of Restricting 2.1.3 The Function of Compelling 2.2 Dynamic Indications 2.3 Goals of Notices and Warnings3. Aspects to Pay Attention to in Achieving Pragmatic Equivalence3.1 Effect Equivalence3.2 Politeness Equivalence3.3 Acceptability Equivalence3.4 Aesthetics Equivalence4. Translation Strategies 4.1 The Strategy of “Borrowing” 4.2 The Strategy of “Adapting”4.3 The Strategy of “Creating”ConclusionReferencesAbstractNotices and warnings are signs displayed for public attention to give information, warnings, directions and orders, etc. They belong to applied translation with specific pragmatic functions. Notices and warnings bear their own features and perform three basic functions: prompting, restricting and compelling. They have dynamic indications aiming at arousing action or response in the reader.According to the theory of pragmatic equivalence represented by Nidas “Dynamic Equivalence” and Newmarks “Communicative Translation”，the rendering of notices and warnings should be reader-centered, adopt the expressions conforming to the ways of thought and expression of the target reader, and should pay much attention to the equivalence of effect, politeness, acceptability, and aesthetics so as to achieve pragmatic equivalence. Through the study of the problems existing in present C/E translation of notices and warnings, the paper concludes that pragmatic equivalence is the most appropriate guideline. The translation strategies of borrowing, adapting, and creating are also put forward to improve English rendering of notices and warnings.Key Words: Notices; Warnings; Pragmatic Equivalence; Dynamic Equivalence; Communicative Translation 摘要提示语和警示语是在公共场所为人们提供各种信息的牌子、张贴或图文等，用以提醒读者注意、约束人们的行为、甚至做出严令禁止。提示语和警示语属于具有特定语用功能的应用文体。 其具有提示性、限制性、强制性三种突出的应用功能。提示语和警示语所展示的信息状态是“动态”，意在影响受众的行为，起到预期的（什么效果？）效果。其特点是行文简明扼要，文本相对独立，有很明确的功能目的性。 应用翻译的语用等效理论以奈达的“动态对等”和纽马克的“交际翻译”为代表。该理论认为翻译这类文本时应该以读者为中心，采取符合英语表达习惯和思维方式的译文，注意译语在效果、功能、礼貌、受众的可接受度与源语一致，以达到语用等效的目的。本文通过研究提示语和警示语翻译中存在的问题，认为语用等效最适宜作为提示语和警示语英译的指导原则，并提出了直接借用、改进、创译等翻译策略以指导此类文本的翻译实践。关键词：提示语；警示语；语用等效；动态对等；交际翻译C/E Translation of Notices and Warnings from the Perspective ofPragmatic EquivalenceIntroductionWith the approaching of 2008 Olympic Games, China is stretching itself for the preparation so as to impress the world with its globalization. Bilingual notices and warnings, however, have not been paid enough attention to. Consequently, there are a lot of problems with them, like spelling and grammatical mistakes, misleading, even meaningless translations, let alone the nonstandard ones. Even the faultless English translations are in many cases so abrupt or commanding that they sometimes lead to pragmatic failure, which may hurt the receptors feelings, thus producing the opposite effect and resulting in worse and more serious outcomes. The grammatical mistakes are usually taken as incompetence of English and are likely to be forgiven; but inappropriate expression manners or moods are regarded as impolite and offensive. One reason for this disappointing situation is the lack of professionals able to produce high quality translations. Municipal departments sometimes would leave it to employees with only rudimentary English skills and a dictionary to handle the translations of public signs. That is the reason for the production of many funning notices and warnings like “TAKE CARE OF YOUR HEAD!” (小心碰头！) All the problems existing in the translation of signs also attribute to the neglect of pragmatic equivalence.Although many people have realized the matter of English signs and some scholars have studied the translation methods of signs and warnings, only a few have tried to form the perspective of pragmatic equivalence. This paper bases the research on the approach of pragmatic equivalence with the purpose to draw peoples attention to the equivalent effect, politeness, acceptability and aesthetics of readers in the translation of notices and warnings. In addition to it, the paper also puts foreword some translation strategies on how to achieve pragmatic equivalence.1. Literature ReviewThere is a wide but not universal agreement that the main aim of the translator is to produce as nearly as possible the same effect on his readers as was produced on the readers of the original (Rieu,1953). This is also true with translation of signs, which belongs to pragmatic translation. Professor He Ziran (1997) believed that pragmatic translation should focus on pragmatic equivalence, which means that translators should translate the intentions of the source language author and manage to make the translation easily understood and accepted by the reader.The approach of pragmatic equivalence is represented by the theory of “Dynamic Equivalence” (or Functional Equivalence) by E. Nida, and of “Communicative Translation” by P. Newmark.1.1 Dynamic Equivalence by E. Nida1.1.1 The Definition of Dynamic Equivalence In Nidas The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969), he gives the definition of Dynamic Equivalence (D-E):Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (1964:133).It can be concluded that D-E focuses on the equivalence of extra-linguistic communicative effect. 1.1.2 Three Key Terms in Dynamic EquivalenceThere are three key terms in Nidas translation theories: dynamic equivalence, equivalent effect, and receptors response. D-E is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect” (1964:159). He thinks equivalence here “cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity, but only in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degree of closest to functional identity.”(2001: 87). Besides, Nida suggests that D-E is mostly the correspondence of the reactions of the receptors not merely formal correspondence. The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. Nida regards readers response as the “focus in translation”. (source?)Nidas Dynamic Equivalence theory focuses on the stand of readers and stresses the importance of equivalent effect or equivalent function in translation.1.2 Communicative Translation by P. Newmark1.2.1 Translation Typology According to Newmark, which approach to adopt in translation depends on three factors: type of text, nature of the readership (education, class, occupation, age, etc.), and purpose of the translation. In his translation typology, Newmark (1981) divides texts into expressive text, informative text, and vocative text. Notices and warnings are mainly of informative and vocative text types, whose translation he thinks should obey the target language norms, and adopt expressions that produce the greatest response on readers. His opinion is similar to Nidas theory.1.2.2 Communicative TranslationTo different kinds of text, Newmark brings forward two approaches: communicative translation for the “run-of the-mill” text and semantic translation for “texts of original expression.” (source?)According to Newmark (2001), communicative translation attempts to “produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained in the readers of the original.” In this sense, notices and warnings should take communicative translation in order to “call upon readers to act, think, feel, and react in the way intended by the text.” In brief, communicative translation seeks to produce pragmatic equivalence on readers.2. Characteristics of Notices and WarningsNotices and warnings are signs displayed for public attention to give information, warning, orders and directions, etc.The translation of notices and warnings has the following main characteristics.1) There are prompting, restricting, and compelling functional features considering their functions; 2) They have dynamic indications considering their information state; 3) They are conative and aim at achieving the perlocutionary act of the receivers considering the goals of notices and warnings. They can be described as an illocutionary speech act with perlocutionary function. In other words, it expresses an intention on the part of the speaker to effect future action on the part of the addressee (Snell-Hornby, 1984:207).2.1 Functional Features The functions of signs are to direct people to behavior in an expected way. Notices and warnings have three distinct applied functional features.2.1.1 The Function of PromptingPrompting signs provide information to readers what to mind and how to obey instructions, from which the public can get useful prompts and considerate care. Prompting signs are concise and mild in wording, and are not imperative. People can carry them or refuse them as they like. e.g. WET PAIN 油漆未干,CAUTION: WET FLOOR 小心地滑, MIND YOUR HEAD! 小心碰头！.2.1.2 The Function of Restricting Restricting signs set limits and constrains for people. This kind of signs are so straight in tone that they sound somewhat abrupt to readers, and they seldom use “please” to show politeness. However, it is requests instead of commands restricting signs make.( I cant understand what it means.) e.g.KEEP RIGHT 右侧行使, GIVE WAY 让路, TICKET ONLY 凭票入场, STAFF ONLY 闲人免进, SLOW 慢行, STOP FOR CHECK 停车检查.2.1.3 The Function of Compelling Compelling signs require people of what they must do and must not do. They are commands and prohibitions to a large extent. The negative words such as “NO” and “FORBIDDEN,” and the imperatives are preferred by compelling signs. Sometimes the penalty against the signs is clearly noted in order to be more restrictive. In most cases people have no choice but obey the requirements strictly. NO U-TURN 禁止掉头, NO OVERTAKING 禁止超车, NO PARKING 禁止停车,POLICE LINE DO NOT PASS 警戒线 勿超越Fixed Penalty of $ 1500 for Littering. Now in Effect.(why not capitalized?)乱丢垃圾，一律罚款1500元。现正实行。2.2 Dynamic IndicationsThe above three kinds of functional signs are widely used in public transportation, infrastructure, and emergency. Their functions are embodied in the word-choice. Dynamic indications are shown in part of speech. Performative words such as verbs and gerunds are preferred, as they are appellative, in order to have readers react and then achieve perlocutionary function.2.3 Goals of Notices and WarningsTo appeal the readers to act and thus to produce a perlocutionary effect are the main goals of notices and warnings, that is to say, the messages carried by the notices and warnings are understood, accepted and performed by people. If a sign is not appellative and fails to produce on its readers a perlocutionary effect, then it has no practical function.3. Aspects to Pay Attention To in Achieving Pragmatic Equivalence3.1 Effect EquivalenceAccording to Newmark, the principle of equivalent effect is the one basic guideline in translation (2001). The translation of notices and warnings should focus essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors, since the function of signs is to make readers react in the expected way. If the receptors response differs from the intention of the author, then it is a pragmatic failure.The failure of mastering pragmalinguistic features of English will dislocate the performative functions of signs.e.g. 危险！请勿动!Danger! Keep out! This is a warning which appears near a fire extinguisher on a train. The meaning of “Keep out” means “Do not get close or enter.” Usually it is used in a very dangerous situation, such as in an electricity room. Seeing it, a foreigner may be panic, so the phrase overstates the seriousness of a behavior against the warning. Danger! No Touch is a better translation.However, the understanding of literal English words is fat from enough as in most cases the pragmatic failure is caused by lack of the source culture. If the translator cannot get the implied meaning of his or her translation, the English signs may be misleading and they even make no sense.e.g. Welcome you again!欢迎你再次来In some shops, there are signs like “Welcome you again!” Many Chinese may think the Chinese translation should be “欢迎下次再来”. However, Welcome is used to greet the arriving guests but not to send them off in English. “Welcome you again!” is understood by foreigners as “欢迎你再次来”或者“再次欢迎你来”.e.g. 小心掉到河里Carefully fall into the River!The translation of its English version is “小心地掉到河里去!” There is no prompting function at all.From these instances it can be concluded that a communicative translation may be better than a semantic one, since it may gain in force and clarity what it loses in semantic content.3.2 Politeness EquivalenceTo Chinese the straight prohibitions are acceptable, but the straight and compelling words are rare in English. That is why passive voice and imperative sentences are preferred in English. Therefore, the equivalence of politeness in translation should be stressed.Many of the signs in China make a demand upon the guest or person, rather than request a certain behavior.Dont Fall! （小心摔倒） (a sign near a staircase at the Forbidden City ) is a good example. No one wants to fall, and certainly no one will try to fall. The action the sign demands is out of the persons control. What the sign is trying to say is: “Be careful not to fall because the staircase is steep or slippery. The Chinese sign calls peoples attention to be careful in a friendly tone, but the clumsy translation veered in an opposite way. Therefore, the target notice loses the politeness represented in the original text. In English speaking countries a similar notice would simply read: Watch your step/ Slippery!Signage that explains or locates facilities for the physically handicapped and elderly people is often confusing in China. e.g.Deformed Man Only (残疾人专用)Old People Waiting and Getting on First (老人优先候车)These are topics that are often treated with sensitivity in the West, so words such as deformed and “old” are not appropriate and even quite offensive. For facilities including restrooms, the term handicap accessible is often used; and “senior citizens” is more acceptable than “old people”.Here is a notice in San Francisco, USA. “Its law. Front seats must be vacated for seniors and persons with disabilities.” Other instances are “Golden Age Village” which means 老人公寓in Chinese, and “Home for Golden Ages” for 敬老院. Though there is no such a word “old”, everyone knows what they mean.3.3 Acceptability EquivalenceSome English notices and warnings are in such a rude and abrupt mood that foreigners may feel offended. The tone of a passage is the key to its communicative effectiveness (Newmark, 2001:150). Therefore, a translation should respect the conventions and the ways of thought and expression of the readers so as to be acceptable to the receptor. In one sense, communicative translation could adapt and make the thought and cultural content of the original more accessible to the readers.e.g.闲人免进The notice “闲人免进” can be frequently seen on doors of Chinese offices. Many Chinese are accustomed to it. However, if it is translated literally as “Strangers are forbidden” or “Admittance denied to idlers”, foreigners may feel Chinese are too bossy. In the West, “STAFF ONLY” is used in the similar situation. e.g.Examples with the word “MUST”携带大型手提行李或伤残体弱之旅客请用电梯上下 Passengers with bulky hand baggage or who are disabled or infirm must use the lift. The word “must” changes the original prompting into English command, in addition to the offensiveness of the word “disabled”. Consequently, the passengers belonging to the “disabled or infirm” may take the notice as discrimination. e.g.W.C. /TOLIET“W.C.” or “TOLIET” notices can be seen everywhere in pubic places. However, foreigners may associate them with the old-fashioned lavatory which W.C. and toilets refer to in English.Toilet is used in private house and W.C. is dated (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1998). In public places it is called the Gents, the Ladies or Public Conveniences in British English; and restroom and washroom in American English. There is also a grammatical mistake in the above examples. The single form means it is only for men or women. Since in most cases the “GENTS” and “LADIES” are located next to each other, it should be “TOILETS” instead of “TOILET”, if the word must be used. From the semantic aspect, some renderings of notices and warnings are grammatically correct, but not tactful or appropriate in pragmatics. 3.4 Aesthetics EquivalenceAsides from the achievement of function, translation should seek to transmit the beauty of the source language if the original text has aesthetic touch to produce special effects on readers. e.g.小草青青, 足下留情The Chinese is poetic rather than commanding in the warning “勿踏草坪”. If it is still translated as the blunt English command “Keep of the grass”, then the original text will lose its beauty which is effective and forceful in persuading people. In this case, the equivalent function is not enough. The equivalence of atheistic should also be one aspect to produce pragmatic equiv