A Tentative Study on Different Expressions of English Euphemisms and Their Functions.doc

毕业论文（设计）A Tentative Study on Different Expressions of English Euphemisms and Their Functions1.Introduction11.Ways to express euphemisms42.1.3Personification52.1.5 Ellipsis62.1.7 Understatement72.2Semantic method82.2.4 Loan words82.3 The variety of pronunciation and spelling form92.4.2 Syntactical negation112.4.3 First personal pronouns113. The functions of euphemisms113.1.3 The euphemisms for illness133.1.4 The euphemisms for sex143.1.5 The euphemisms for birth143.2.3 The euphemisms for the aged and weight and appearance173.2.4 The euphemisms for poverty and unemployment183.2.5 The euphemisms for excretion183.5 Covering up function203.5.1 The euphemisms for the requirements of politics.203.5.2 The euphemisms for the requirements of war213.5.3 The euphemisms for press conferences213.5.5 The euphemisms for crime223.6 Using countries names as euphemisms23References261.Introduction There is a humor: An Australian woman married to an American man. They spent their honeymoon in America. And one day, the couple intended to go to a party together. But the bridegroom couldnt find a suitable full dress. The bride took out a birthday suit that she gave him as a present few days ago and said: “Why not wear your birthday suit?” However, the whole family was all astonished.In American English, “in ones birthday suit” is the euphemistic expression of “naked”. So this embarrassing situation results from the regional differences in euphemisms.The second humor: Once a Paris tourist resided in UK. A landlady told him sadly: “my husband has just passed to the other side.” The guest looked from the fence of the garden but saw no one, feeling confused. The landlady explained: “I mean hes kicked the bucket.” The guest comforted her: “I hope his foot will be better soon.” The landlady felt unintelligible and said: “no, he wasnt here, he snuffed it you know.” The guest wondered and said: “But youve got electricity here.” The reasons why the guest didnt answer properly are that he didnt realize that the landlady used euphemisms, nor did he understand the “conversational implication” of the euphemisms. Actually, we know what the landlady wanted to say is that her husband had died. The third humor: A: How is John doing with his study at school? B: Hes a machine. Here, from the literal meaning of Bs reply, he seems hasnt answered As question. However, we can guess the implication between a machine and study. At last, we can infer that John is hard-working. If the humors are carefully observed, we can realize that the common thing among them is that euphemisms are used. As an indispensable and natural part of English language, English euphemisms have attracted peoples attention for a long time. Whats more, English euphemisms have close relationships with the western culture, and truly reflect the life and values of English people and their history. In this case, euphemisms in use differ from person to person, from profession to profession, even from class to class, which are why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle people if they do not know the background of English culture(Feng Cuihua,1995a:208).Then, what do English euphemisms mean? Lets have a look at some different definitions.The word “euphemism” is derived from the Greek word “euphemismos”. The prefix “eu” means “good, sound, pleasant, well” and “pheme” means “saying, speech, speaking”. Thus the literal meaning of “euphemism” is “to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner”(He Shangfen,2002:362).In Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (1973) the definition reads, “substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.”(Feng Cuihua,1995b:207-208).Encyclopedia Britannica (1994) also defines “euphemism” as “a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms”(Wu Changqi,2004). In the Oxford Advanced Learners English Chinese Dictionary the explanation of “euphemism” is (example of the) use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones(AS Hornby, 1997:491). From the first humor, we know that a culture shock happens when one does not know the values, aesthetic conceptions and moral concepts in another country. From the second humor, we know that people always use pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases to replace some disgusting words which make people feel embarrassed. From the last humor, we know that “unlike presuppositions and entailments, implications are inferences that cannot be made from isolated utterances. They are dependent on the context of the utterance and the shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer.”(Liu Shuang,2003). Furthermore, only when we know how to make use of euphemisms in different background and environment can we avoid many conflicts in the process of social communication, minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness and do effective multi-cultural intercommunication. Then, there is a great need for us to use a tactful way to express emotion and exchange ideas. This paper aims to discuss the application of English euphemisms and to make acknowledgement of their functions which can help us use English euphemisms in a correct way. 1.Ways to express euphemismsThere are four ways to express English euphemisms: figure of speech, semantic method, the variety of pronunciation and spelling form and grammar.2.1 Figure of speechIn different ways to express euphemisms, figure of speech plays a very important role.2.1.1 MetonymyThat is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. It can be divided into the following forms: 1) To use the container to take the place of the things in it. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “liking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “limb” refers to “leg”. For some special occasions, the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example, “pick”, which is a tool of prying a lock, can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance, “poppy” is a kind of flower, but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example, “hellow” is a greeting word, and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example, “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleons head portrait; “Borstal”, a name of countryside in Kent in Britain, can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”. Sometimes, some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words, in this way, people gradually forget the euphemistic identities. Therefore, we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help us a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemisms and make good use of them. 2.1.2 Metaphor Euphemisms may be made by a process called metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one kind to things of another. To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example, “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”; “to deflower” is for “to have improper sexual intercourse with girls (especially maiden)”and “to have a road to travel” is for “to have a long time to reach an agreement”. More examples:offensive wordeuphemismoffensive wordeuphemismagedsunset yearsbreastmilk bottleshandcuffsbraceletsthe money of briberygreasesevere damageconstructive destructionshock random bombingto be poorto be pinchedto degenerateto go astray2.1.3Personification Peoples names are often used to replace taboo words. For example, “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century, it was called “ my aunt Jones”, “Mrs. Jones”, “Sir John”, “Sir Harry”, “the Henry”, while in 20th century, it was called “jakes”, “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. In fact, they have lost the euphemistic function. And there are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: (1) I have a visitor. (2) Ive got painters in.(3) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. (4) My friend has come.(5) Little sister is here. (6) The cardinal has come. 2.1.4Analogy In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy, which makes the humble name more elegant. For example, a tendency to elevate menial or unskilled jobssometimes substituting a grand title for a large salarycan make offal smell like a rose by promoting garbage men to sanitation engineers or even to waste-reduction managers. By implication, they become highly trained technicians and executives. More examples:less elegant wordeuphemismless elegant wordeuphemismbarbershophair salon/beauty parlorhairdresserbeauticianhealth club staffsfitness coordinatorsjanitorbuilding maintenance engineer2.1.5 Ellipsis That is to omit the offensive words while speaking. Of course, such phrases should be put into a certain context, which can express the meaning of euphemisms. For example, to take precautions (against pregnancy); to depart (from this world); I need to go (to the lavatory); she is expecting/anticipating (a baby); someone is out (of work).2.1.6 Periphrasis It is an expression of beating around the bush and its aim is to avoid offending others and to be more polite. For example, fart is not pleasant to ear, so people call it wind from the behind; someone wants you to go away, but he only says he will call your carriage for you; someone living at the government expense may make you envy him, but actually he is in prison. Many sayings about going to WC also make a good use of periphrasis like spend a penny, ease or relieve oneself. So does the “drop” for “adjustment downward” (J.S, & C.G., 1991). More examples:less polite wordeuphemismless polite wordeuphemismto courtto go walkingto dieto close ones eyes/ to breathe ones lastwomens underclothesunmentionablesto dismiss to give somebody the sackIn the field of education, when a teacher comments on a students moral conducts and school work in front of the student or his parent, the teacher should report the fact on the one hand, but on the other hand should take into consideration the students psychological endurance or the parents face. For example, if a student cheats in class, the teacher regards it that the student depends on others to do his work or he needs help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play; if a student is quarter-witted and he usually gets a low mark in exams, instead of a below average student, the teacher would say that your child is a bit slow for his age or that he is working at his own level (Wu Yan, 1995). More examples(Xue Yong,2003):less polite wordeuphemismdirtybe lack of proper health habitsliesshowing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual materialto be a bullyto have qualities of leadership but need help in learning to use them democraticallyto stealto need help in learning to respect the property rights of others2.1.7 Understatement That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward. For example, “the boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country” (steal, detention home)(Feng Cuihua,1995b:207). More examples:serious wordeuphemismserious wordeuphemismfalling behindless advanced retarded childrenless able childrenstinkingsmellytreatmenthealth care2.2Semantic method2.2.1 Synonym For example, “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”; and “mad” is replaced by “crazy”, “insane”, or “lunatic”. Such euphemisms aim to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term. 2.2.2 Negation Such euphemisms use the contrary term to express the same meaning and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo. For example, “a fat chance” means “a slim chance” and “fine words” stands for “bad words”. 2.2.3 Vague words and expressions That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. As in the expressions to sleep with/go to bed with someone, we use words naming the larger event in place of more precise references to the sexual relations. There are other examples which use vague expressions:offensive wordeuphemismoffensive wordeuphemisma man of bad tastea man of doubtful tasteto come across an unfortunate thingto have an accidentin debtin difficultiesto entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company2.2.4 Loan words From the period of Renaissance, Latin, Greek, and French are considered as cultured words (He Shangfen,2002:378). People consider that those languages are more elegant, tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century, no matter in Britain or America, people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”(Tao Sanqin,2003). English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages to create its own euphemisms. For example, “lavatory” was borrowed from Latin word “lavatorium”, but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore, people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”, and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “lingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “Sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”, which means “tongue kissing”. And we have coined halitosis (bad breath) from the Latin (halitus) for “breath”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition, euphemisms also borrow some scientific and technological and academic words. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example, Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; “magnetic” is for “sexy”; “perspire” is for “sweat”. Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words, while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily. 2.3 The variety of pronunciation and spelling form English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemisms.1) Compounding: It is a form of phonetic distortion in which two or more words are squeezed together both orthographically and phonetically. An example of this is gezunda for a chamber pot,” a term derived from the fact that this object “goes under the bed”.2) Acronym: It is the use of acronyms instead of their component parts as in DA (drug addict); J.D (juvenile delinquent); P and Q (peace and quiet); GD (God damn); Capital Letter C (Cancer) or “the Big C”; T.B. (tuberculosis); JC (Jesus Christ); BM (bowel movement); W.C (water closet); B.O (body odor); V.D (venereal disease); AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome); SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome).3) Chipping: It is the shortening of a word and may be seen in vamp for vampire here meaning a seductive woman; lav for lavatory; homo for homosexual; coca for cocaine; bra for brassiere; flu for influenza.4）Diminutive: It is the formation of a new term by shortening a name and adding a suffix indicating affection or smallness. Heinie, for example, is the diminutive of “hind end” and refers to the buttocks.5) Euphemistic Punctuation: For example, sh * *, s * * *, s- - t refer to shit; son of a - - is for son of a bitch; d- - is for dam.6) Back Slang: elly-baybelly.7)Reinterpretation of Initials: hot and coldheroin and cocaine.( Xue Yong,2003)There is an interesting example: “laboratory”, the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “lavatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection, the stress was moved to the second syllable(Tao Sanqin,2003). Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words, which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemisms. Therefore, in English there is a way to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. More examples: pee-pee for piss; poo-poo for bowel movement; Gad/Good/Golly/Gosh for God; Cripes/Christopher Columbus for Christ. 2.4 Grammar Bolinger (1968) proposed that euphemism was not only restricted to lexicon and that there were grammatical ways of toning something down. Therefore, euphemizing should not only be limited to lexical ways but also be achieved by grammatical ways. 2.4.1 Tense In English, tense can lend a little euphemistic color to the expressions undesired. For example, “I wondered if you would mind helping me.” or I wondered if you could help me, asking for help this way, people wo