刘孝成语法义学员版.doc

TOEFL语法讲义刘孝成第一部分 TOEFL考试语法分析Structure and Written Expression （结构和书面表达而不是语法） 句子结构（15） 词法（25）TOEFL语法中，不允许缩写！当然所有格不算在内。 如：Its a book.(F) 应为It is a book.不能出现太口语化的句子！ 如：It is really beautiful.(F)应为It is very beautiful. really只能表示真假，不能修饰beautiful.基本技巧：1，插入语永远对 。2， 。 first划线永远对 ； 虚拟语气不考； waters永远对 self划线永远错。3，搭配词对（错误率较高） Ex: another & other 互改。 区别： 一、填空题基本做题方法（以9501为例）：1 先找句子的分段点（即连词，分词，介词和标点符号）将句子分为几段，选择要看的那部分句子，即只关注与空格相关的那部分句子（主要是空格所在的那部分句子）。句法：简单句： S+V 并列句： (1)句子；句子。(2)句子，and/or/but/then句。简化掉没有空格的那部分句子。复合句： 主句+从句 如Because+句子，句子。When+句子，句子。if+句子，句子。简化掉没有空格的分句。步骤实质：将复合句或并列句化为简单句，使得每句话实际上只须读一半即可。 基本概念（1）有主语、有谓语方可称为句子，否则为短语。（2）主句和从句必须有连接词衔接。连接词可在两个句子中间，亦可放置于句首。 On March 1,1867,.to theunionwhen President Andrew Johnsons veto was overridden(改变）.A. since the state of Nebraska had been admittedB. admitted that the state of NebraskaC. the admission of the state of NebraskaD. the state of Nebraska was admitted 答案：d 答对率：50% 2 简化句子简化原则：副词，冠词，数词可以划掉 介词短语（即prep.+n）可以划掉（主句句首除外） 作定语（即修饰名词）的adj或分词短语可以划掉 句中作状语的分词短语可以划掉 与空格无关的句子可以划掉两个标点符号之间不能随便划掉。因为这部分句子可能对整句话的逻辑关系起作用步骤实质：进一步简化句子，找到句子的主干即主谓。 During the flood of 1927,the Red Cross,.out of emergency headquarters in Mississippi, set up temporary shelters for the homeless.A. operatesB. is operatingC. has operatedD. operating 答案：d 答对率：44%3 分析句子结构，判断空格中所缺句子成分。捷径：可直接套用固定句型或固定结构。 not until位于句首引起倒装。 倒装句答案十分规矩，其首字母为系动词或助动词。4 区分四选项，结合句意和语感确定答案。总结：(1)把句子变为简单句。(2)简化句子。(3)给自己一个选择答案的依据。(4)根据依据确定答案。句子简单句主干判断选答案主语，谓宾。100%考二 改错做题要点（以9501为例）：1 语法与句意并重：一定要通读全句（做题思想）。 Ex: a moisture climate 一个潮湿的天气 句意没错，但语法错。应用形容词moist来修饰名词climate 前面是形容词修饰名词，后面也应该是形容词修饰名词。 这个词如果有形容词，应该用形容词修饰名词。2 先找句子主干，看句子结构，然后一边看句意，一边思考划线部分的语法知识点正确与否。3 熟悉各种错误类型，对特殊词形成特殊反应。 正确取决于你对题目的敏感程度和熟练程度。a.特殊词汇ability。(ability的用法与able类似) 考试形式：ability of something to do somethingb.当看到than时，应该下意识的往前寻找more。 当看到one of, other , more等时，要下意识往后找复数名词。c.note在考试中永远是考被动。 be noted for因为而著名d.while常考。 while是时间状语从句引导词，后跟状语从句。 考试中若发现while加一个孤立的名词，那么一定是错的。 可将while改为during/in 所以说，while和during/in是一对词，常互相改。4 选项ABCD一定要看全，避免落入考题的陷阱或犯不必要的错误。在四个选项中选一个最明显的错误，最好有明确的理由。第二部分 填空题常考结构分析一、主句单一原则任何一个句子中只可能有一个主句，做题时考生需要首先判断原题中已经给出的句子结构，如果已经有一个主句，那么就绝对不能够再出现另一个主句，除非中间有连接词进行联系。例1： ，work songs often exhibit the song culture of a people in a fundamental form. (A) They occur where they are (B) Occurring where (C) Where they occur (D) Where do they occur分析: 例2: Indiana, is in a rich farming and dairy area, it is primarily a diversified industrial center (A) Fort Wayne (B) Although Fort Wayne (C) For wayne is in (D) Fort Wayne, in分析: 二、谓语动词专一原则任何一个句子只可能存在一个谓语动词.句子中不可能没有谓语动词，也不能多于一个谓语动词(除非中间存在连接词).例1:William Walkers mural, Wall of Respect,” an outdoor wall in Chicago, deals with social issues. (A) covers (B) covers it (C) which covers (D) which it covers分析 例2:In copper engravings and etchings，-caused by the edges of the plate is clearly visible on the paper. (A) the impression is (B) if the impression is (C) impressions (D) the impression分析: 三、平行结构技巧:如果填空题中空格的后面有and，或and后面有空格，那这道题目一定是考察平行结构.填空题中平行结构出现的形式是:A and B；A , B ,and C例1:The technique of recording, classifying, and is known as accounting. (A) an enterprises transactions summary (B) the summarizing of an enterprises transactions (C) transactions of an enterprise are summarized (D) summarizing the transactions of an enterprise分析:空格的后面是and，一般考平行结构，空格处缺与前面 recording, classifying并列的动名词.四个选项中只有(D)符合条件，故选(D).例2:Louis T. Wright, a surgeon, developed ingenious orthopedic braces，一，and supervised the first use Aureomycin on human patients. (A) treating skull fractures that he pioneered in (B) pioneered in treating skull fractures (C) which pioneered in treating skull fractures (D) he was a pioneer in the treatment of skull fractures分析: .四、宾语从句结构宾语从句这里指出的是填空题中关于宾语从句考的最多的两个结构:state(陈述，表明)+that indicate(指明，表明)+that例1:The quantum theory states ，such as light, is given off and absorbed in tiny definite units called quanta or photons. (A) energy that (B) that it is energy (C) it is energy (D) that energy分析: 例2:Studies of the gravity field of the Earth indicate yield when unusual weight is placed on them. (A) although its crust and mantle (B) its crust and mantle to (C) that its crust and mantle (D) for its crust and mantle to分析: 语法中常考的后跟that宾语从句的动词： 有时还会考被动形式，比如：It is estimated that insist+虚拟语气但须注意下列及物动词后that可以省略： 五、介词+which结构许多同学在选择which还是介词+which上总是不太明白，这里有一个技巧可以告诉大家.which 后面一定加一个缺主语或者宾语的句子，因为“which”在这个句子中作了宾语或者主语成分.“介词+which”后面则跟一个完整的句子，因为“介词+which”整个结构在定语从句中作状语. 句子+ prep + which +句子 当碰到句子句子时，优先选择 prep + which/in that 定语从句 ：S+Vt+n + that/which + 不完整句 同位语从句：S+Vt+n + that + 完整句例1:In the United States, a primary election is a method voters select the nominees for public office. (A) that (B)by which (C)is that (D)by those分析: 例2: Croquet is a popular lawn game players hit wooden balls through wire arches called wickers. (A) when (B) which (C) is when (D) in which分析: 六、in that结构in that - in that =because 连词，引导原因状语in that与because区别：in that不能位于句首。句子+in that +句子。 结合上一点中：当碰到句子句子时，优先选择 prep + which/in that 因此说：in that出现即为答案。例1:Mercury differs from other industrial metals it is a liquid. (A) whereas (B) in that (C) because of (D) consequently分析: 例2:Hovercraft, or air-cushion vehicles, are unusual travel over land and water on a layer of air. (A)they (B)in they (C)that they (D)in that they分析: 例3:Emily Dickinsons garden was a place -great inspiration for her poems. (A) that she drew (B) by drawing her (C) from which she drew (D) drawn from which分析 七、what结构what结构在95.8以后的新题中考的非常多，记住一点: （2）what 在前后句中必须同时做成分 即what =the things that，其中the things做前边句子成分；that做后边句子成分。（3）n+what一定错，因为n+what=n+the things that错！ what自带先行词，不需要前面再加上一个名词。 prep+what+SVO 一定错，改为：prep+which+SVO（4）what is now 永远对，因为是可有可无的插入语 （5）what little，what few what little = - what few = -例1:The chief foods eaten in any country depend largely on best in its climate and soil. (A) it grows (B) what grows (C) does it grow (D) what does it grow分析: 例2:During the eighteenth century, Little Turtle was chief of the Miami tribe whose territory became-is now Indiana and Ohio. (A) there (B) where (C) that (D) what分析: .八、同位语结构句子成分包括：系动成分，主语，谓语，宾语，定语，状语，补语和同位语。同位语：主语同位语和宾语同位语（只能是名词）同位语的作用：说明主语或宾语的某一方面的属性或内容。（1）主语同位语的三种位置 主语同位语，主谓宾 。 即， n，SVO。 做题技巧：- 主语，主语同位语，谓语+宾语。即，S，n ，VO 。 主语同位语+主谓宾。 Ex:The term family refers to something.（2）宾语同位语的两种位置 主语+谓语+宾语，+宾语同位语。即，SVO，n。 位于句尾的孤立名词必是宾语同位语不定式。 adv + 同位语 因为同位语前可能省略了动词。 Ex:，approximately (which is)the distance from Marathon to Athens。 主语+谓语+宾语+宾语同位语。即：SVO n。同位语考试形式一:名词作主语，主语同位语 _，_，_(注意是两个逗号)例1:The tongue， ，is an important aid in chewing and swallowing. (A) is the chief organ of taste (B) tasting the organ chiefly (C) the chief organ of taste (D) the organ chiefly tastes分析: 同位语考试形式二:名词作主语，后面的名词是主语同位语,解释说明后面的名词 _，_(注意是一个逗号)例2:A prolific writer of prose and verse，-of Native Americans in her novel, Century of Dishonor. (A) Helen Hunt Jackson took up the cause (B) the cause taken up by Helen Hunt Jackson (C) was Helen Hunt Jacksons cause (D) the cause that Helen Hunt Jackson took up.分析: 例3:Often very annoying weeds ,-and act as hosts to many insect pests. (A) that crowd out less hardy plants than goldenrods (B) crowding out less hardy plants by goldenrods (C) the goldenrods crowding out of less hardy plants (D) goldenrods crowd out less hardy plants分析: 同位语考试形式三:主谓宾后面出现一个名词那么名词可以作宾语或者表语的同位语例4:An Olympic marathon is 26 miles and 385 yards, approximately一from Marathon to Athens. (A) the distance is (B) that the distance is (C) is that the distance (D) the distance分析: .九、比较结构Ex：X plays tennis better than _。 Y 省略性 Y does 对称性 does Y 倒装性 (1)对称性 要求：比较结构中，比较对象要对等。 比较结构中，优先选择-Ex: The activities of the international marketing researcher are frequently much broader than -. (A)those of the domestic marketer (B)the domestic marketer does 选(A)!(2)省略性 比较结构中，相同的谓语结构可以省略，尤其是be动词。 Ex: He is taller than I. =He is taller than I am.(3)倒装性 比较结构中，than后可以倒装，也可以不倒装。 考试时主要考倒装的形式。 例1:Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than -eastern Nebraska. (A) does (B) in (C) it does in (D) in it does分析 例2: Hot objects emit-一do cold objects. (A) rays more than infrared (B) rays are more infrared than (C) more than infrared rays (D) more infrared rays than分析: 例3:The activities of the international marketing researcher are frequently much broader than一 (A) the domestic marketer has (B) the domestic marketer does (C) those of the domestic marketer (D) that which has the domestic marketer分析: 例4:The annual worth of Utahs manufacturing is greater than一 (A) that of its mining and farming combined (B) mining and farming combination (C) that mining and farming combined (D) of its combination mining and farming分析 .十、定语从句省略结构1 在定语从句中，“主+系”经常可以同时省略，即-Ex: Indigo is a vat color ,(which is) so called because it does not dissolve in water .so called本身也是个常考的词组：意为“所谓的，被如此称为的”Ex: An Olympic marathon is 26 miles and 385 yards, approximately (which is) the distance from Marathon to Athens.2 定语从句的特殊省略 （1）the way （in which）+句子Ex: Commercial expansion from city to suburb has affected the way (in which) people in the United states live and work（2）the time（when,that）+句子Ex: I do remember the first time I ever heard the sweetest voice in the world. by the time+句子（完成时态）（3）the reason（why/that）+句子3 定语从句中，如that或which在从句中作宾语，那么可以省略that或which。 S+Vt+n+that/which+S+Vt。 n.+S+Vt.S+Vt+n.1+n.2+Vt. n1+n2+Vt两个名词连不上，读题时若发现n.1与n.2连不上，那么中间一定省略that，且在及物动词后面作宾语。Ex: Most crocodiles will eat anything-capture and overpower. (A) they can (B) which can 选(A)，(that)they can.例1:Most crocodiles will eat anything capture and overpower. (A) can (B) they can (C) which can (D) and分析: 例2:A majority of people in the United States can get all the calcium their bodies-from the food they eat. (A) require (B) requires (C) requiring (D)to require分析: 十一、状语从句省略结构状语从句一般情况下在引导词后面是完整句。如：because + 完整句，句子。原因状语从句 if + 句子，句子。条件状语从句Metals expand when they are heated.Metals expand是主句;when they are heated是状语从句.但是这个状语从句中可以省略掉they are，句子变成:Metals expand when heated.但是并不是所有的状语从句都可以这么省略.这种省略从句主语的方式理论上需要满足以下两个条件: 第一、 ; 第二、 ， 比如上面的they和are要么同时省略，要么同时保留.例1:Although-rigid, bones exhibit a degree of elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand considerable impact. (A) apparently (B) are apparently (C) apparently their (D) are they apparently分析:连词although通常引导主谓完整的状语从句，当从句主语与主句主语相同、从句谓语又为系表结构时，则可省略主语和连系动词，故正确答案为(A ) .Although apparently rigid一Although bones are apparently rigid，注意bones和are必须同时省略.因此，我们从上面的例题中来分析一下填空题中状语从句省略以后的形式: 等为引导状语从句的词; 这些词后面一定+形容词(分词)，主句(注意逗号的后面是主句，前面是从句)例2:A11 marble is composed of crystals of the minerals calcite or dolomite， ，are perfectly white. (A) when, pure which (B) when, which pure (C) which, pure when (D) which, when pure分析: 例3: relatively costly, the diesel engine is highly efficient and needs servicing infrequently (A) Even (B) It is (C) Even though (D) There is分析: 十二、动词-ing+名词的复数作主语结构这是一个比较难的结构，因为许多同学经常混淆动名词和现在分词.现在分词相当于形容词，和后面的名词是修饰与被修饰的关系; 动名词是相当于具有动词特征的名词，和后面的名词是动宾关系.那么如何在句子中判断动名词和现在分词呢?我们来看两个例子: Doing exercises is a good habit.做练习是一个好习惯. The starving troops have to surrender. 第一个句子强调的是做，而不是练习，不能说练习是一个好习惯，只能说做练习是一个好习惯，因此do是中心词，它和后面的名词是动宾关系，那么这个do就是动名词;第二个句子说挨饿的军队必须投降，是军队投降，而不是挨饿要投降，因此中心词是troop, starving是来修饰troop的，因此starving是现在分词.在“动词ing+名词的复数”作主语结构的句子中，谓语动词是系动词is技巧：-例1: by transferring the blame to others is often called scapegoate. (A) Eliminate problems (B) The eliminated problems(被消除的问题) (C) Eliminating problems (D) Problems are eliminated分析: 例2: wooden buildings helps to protect them from damage due to weather. (A) Painting (B) Painted (C) The paint (D) By painting分析: 例3:Scientists think一helps some tree to conserve water in the winter. (A) when losing leaves (B) leaves are lost (C) that losing leaves (D) the leaves losing分析: 十三、make结构make结构为:make +sth.(宾语)+possible+(宾语补足语);共有三种形式: )做题技巧: 例1:X-rays are able to pass through objects and thus make-details that are otherwise impossible to observe. (A) it visible (B) visibly (C) visible (D) they are visible分析: 例2:Using many symbols makes-to put a large amount of information on a single map. (A) possible (B) it possible (C) it is possible (D) that possible分析: 十四、the morethe more结构这个结构的意思是“越越”，结构一共有三条规则: 标准句式：The more S + V ，the more S + V 。（）省略性：-（）对称性：-技巧： The more the + n ，the more the + n。优先选择（）倒装性： the more S + V ，the more S + V 。 条件状语从句 主句 the more，the more 结构中，只有第二个the more才可倒装。例1:The stronger magnet, the greater the number of lines of magnetic force. (A) of (B) the (C) is the (D) is of the分析： 例2:The less the surface of the ground yields to the weight of the body of a runner, to the body. (A) the stress it is greater (B) greater is the stress (C) greater stress is (D) the greater the stress分析 .十五、表示结果的伴随状语结构主谓宾完整的句子后面，如果出现两个词，thereby或者thus，那么这两个词后面必须使用现在分词，表示“从而怎么样，的意思，这便是表示结果的伴随状语结构.但是必须注意并不是thus后面就是加doing，必须是前面的一个完整的句子才对.例1:The Smithsonian Institution preserves more than sixty-ev