私营经济外文翻译文献中英文

外文文献翻译原文及译文标题：私营经济外文文献翻译中英文文献出处：Mediterranean Oak Woodland Working Landscapes: Dehesas of Spain and Ranchlands of California (pp.389-424)译文字数：4000多字英文The Private Economy of Dehesas and Ranches: Case StudiesJos Oviedo, Paola Ovando, etcAbstractThis chapters objective is to measure and analyze total private income and profitability for five case study privately-owned dehesas and oak woodland ranches. TheAgroforestry Accounting Systemis applied at the farm scale. Results are estimated for individual forestry, game, livestock, crop, and service activities, and for activities aggregated as a whole. The case study application incorporates landowner consumption of private amenities as part of the total income from the dehesa or ranch, showing that these private amenities are the most important contributor to total income, while the contribution from livestock production is low or even negative. Hunting activities show low revenues. Dehesas with a high stocking rate are significantly supported by European Union livestock subsidies, while livestock production and other activities on California ranches are more sensitive to market conditions. Both in Spain and California, real profitability is competitive with alternative non-agricultural investments when amenity consumption and increases in land value are considered. These results are relevant to understanding current and future trends in landowner motivations for land and enterprise investment, and should be considered in conservation policy development.KeywordsTotal income,Private amenity,Livestock production,Land appreciation,Oak wood land economicsIntroductionThe land use and vegetation mosaic characteristic of dehesas in Spain and oak woodland ranches in California are shaped by human management practices and activities (Bolsinger1988; Daz et al.1997; FRAP2003; MARM2008). Dehesas and ranches are typically managed for multiple uses, combining production of livestock, game, wood products, and crops. Crops are often used as supplemental fodder for livestock and game. The particular combination of uses depends on the unique setting of each dehesa or ranch, the kinds of trees, the fertility of the soil, local rainfall and topography, adjacent land uses, understory species, and markets. Analysis and comparison of the economies of these working landscapes must be framed by differences and similarities in institutional settings, property rights, national and regional economies, management practices, and landowner objectives (Huntsinger et al.2004).In this chapter private total income (hereafter total income) and profitability rates (hereafter profitability) are estimated and measured for five case studies of privately-owned dehesas and ranches using the Agroforestry Accounting System. This approach extends the governmental standard System of National Accounts by incorporating private amenities, land revaluation (which can be any change in land value), annual natural growth of timber, cork and firewood, and growth from the previous accounting period that is used during the current accounting period. Improvement in standardized physical statistics and economic accounting tools at micro and macro scales is critical for a better understanding of landowner decisions and response to natural resource conservation policy. Results are estimated for individual forestry, game, livestock, crop, and service activities, and for the aggregated activities as a whole.Castilian Mastiff dogs are still put to work in the dehesa region north-west of Castilla-Len, where wolves are a continuing threat to Merino sheep in the melojo oak (Quercus pyrenaica) dehesas. In this view, the distinguished Spanish economist J.M. Naredo is hiking a medieval path (camino de herradura) in El Cardoso de la Sierra, 100km north of Madrid, in the company of Pinto, a mastiff. Naredos pioneering work integrating nature conservation and human needs has notably influenced conservationists and academics. (Photograph by P. Campos)The case study approach provides a comprehensive description of landowner management and motivations within the context of a specific political, social, and ecological setting. The economic analysis of these case studies considers commercial and private amenity benefits (hereafter “amenities”), because landowner management and investment decisions are motivated by a mix of both (Torell et al.2001,2005; Campos et al.2009b; Oviedo et al.2012). In analyzing the multiple uses of dehesas and ranches, few researchers have integrated market and non-market landowner amenity economic values consistently in a standardized total income system of accounts.First we present the Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS) and the case studies. Next the physical indicators used in the analysis are laid out, followed by analysis of the economic results from the case studies. Findings from a comparison of the case studies are then summarized and conclusions presented.In Relation to the System of National AccountsThe United Nations-based System of National Accounts (SNA) is the internationally agreed-upon standard set of recommendations on how to compile measures of current production (EUROSTAT2000; European Communities et al.2009; BEA2010). The SNA lays out a coherent, consistent, and integrated set of macroeconomic accounts drawing on internationally agreed upon concepts, definitions, classifications and accounting rules. However, the SNA has shortcomings for measuring total income and capital from dehesas and ranches. On the output side, the SNA does not measure the value of forage grazed1by livestock in the accounting period and of the annual natural growth of tree and shrub products that will be harvested in a future accounting period (e.g.: firewood and cork annual natural growth). On the cost side, the SNA omits the value of tree and shrub products grown in previous years that are harvested, or contribute to products harvested, during the analyzed accounting period.This is the case of shrubs browsed by game and of wood products from trees. These omissions are relevant when measuring the contribution of single and aggregated activities to dehesa and ranch total income. Furthermore, private amenity consumption, considered an important form of income to landowners (Campos et al.2009b), and capital gain, are not part of total income in the SNA. The system also does not offer an individualized criterion for measuring the value of self-employed labor, but it does offer a measure of mixed income that includes jointly the value of self-employed labor and operating capital benefit.Cork stripping is unique to oaks of the Mediterranean forest. Alcornocales Natural Park in Spain is the largest cork oak forest in the world. Cork stripping is a specialized task and workers need to be trained to become harvesters of cork, locally known as “hachas” (literally, “hatchets”). Such highly trained workers receive a wage several times higher than that of non-specialized workers. (Photograph by P. Campos)The goal of the Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS) is to extend the criteria of the SNA in order to include omitted values when estimating the total income and capital from dehesas and ranches. The AAS criteria that were applied for valuing forage grazed by livestock, the annual natural growth of trees and shrubs that are not harvested or used in production by the end of the accounting period, and previous natural growth that has already accumulated (“stored”) at the beginning of the accounting period, are detailed in Campos et al. (2007a,2008a,b,2009a). The application of the AAS methodology at the farm scale generates a comprehensive set of income, capital and profitability measurements for the analyzed case studies for individual and aggregated dehesa and ranch activities.The AAS organizes economic information into two accounts. The production account measures output and cost flows from current production, including investments made by the landowner in the woodland, final work in progress formation, and work in progress used. The capital balance account incorporates entries, withdrawals, and revaluation of fixed capital and stored work in progress, like annual wood growth that is not harvested in the accounting period.Outputs and fixed good (durable goods) sales are valued at producer prices in the AAS. These are prices received by the producer excluding operating subsidies and any value added tax or similar deductible tax (European Communities et al.2009: para. 6.51b, 101). Indicators at producer prices have interest both for society as a whole and landowners since these are prices before government intervention via taxes and subsidies, which are transfers between sectors of the economy and do not generate new income. We also present indicators at basic prices, the price received by the producer including operating subsidies on production minus any tax payable. This is the most relevant price for producer decision-making (European Communities et al.2009: paras 6.51a and 6.52, 101). Raw materials, services, and fixed goods bought are valued at purchase prices, which are prices paid by the landowner at farm gate, excluding operating subsidies and any value added tax or similar deductible tax (European Communities et al.2009, para. 6.64, 102). Operating subsides minus any payable tax will be referred hereafter as net operating subsidies.Total IncomeTotal income has been defined “as that which can be consumed while keeping real wealth intact, saving =investment is the difference between this measure of income and actual consumption. Both income and saving will then include real capital gains. To preserve the saving-investment identity, investment would also have to include these capital gains. Failure to include them causes a disparity between income statements and balance sheets that reflect market values” (Eisner1989: 17). If we follow the SNA criteria, we find that the production boundary is limited to traded products and to a reduced number of produced outputs supplied free by the government and other nonprofit economic units. The missing measurement of environmental amenities in the SNA is a relevant gap because these are “a significant part of the real income of many individuals” (Krutilla1967). The AAS incorporates both capital gain and amenities in the total income measurement to overcome these omissions.The two components of total income measured by the AAS are the net value added and capital gain. The net value added at producer prices has two components, the net operating margin and labor. The latter includes income to both employed and self-employed labor. Net operating margin plus capital gain constitutes the capital income, which is the total benefit that landowners obtain annually from dehesas and ranches both as actual monetary and expected benefit. These benefits pay both for land resource rentand manufactured capital. The net operating margin is the difference between outputs and costs at producer prices. Capital gain is measured from capital revaluation less capital destruction plus normal depreciation during the accounting period. Land and livestock revaluation are important sources of capital gain. Other asset revaluations come from equipment and buildings.In our case studies, we present the results at producer prices for the different components of the total income: net operating margin, labor, and capital gain. The net value added at basic prices (net operating surplus plus labor) and the operating profitability at basic prices are also presented, since these indicators have interest from the landowner perspective. We also present results of net cash flow estimated as revenues less expenditures in the accounting year, since this gives an indication of the landowner liquidity when setting management goals and deciding on investment.The AAS application in this chapter extends the income measurement to identify the value of family labor and of the non-market amenity output flow to the landowner during the year. It also distinguishes the share of land revaluation attributed to commercial and amenity land activities when estimating capital gains as part of total income.Profitability MeasureThe estimation of profitability refers to net operating margin or surplus, capital gain and capital income. It is measured on the basis of immobilized capital in the accounting period in order to be consistently compared with alternative investments (Campos et al.2001). The immobilized capital is the average annual landowner economic investment in a dehesa or ranch operation.The ratios of net operating margin and net operating surplus to immobilized capital (IMC) provide the operating profitabilities earned from the enterprise at producer and at basic prices, respectively. The capital gain profitability is measured at producer prices as the ratio of capital gain to immobilized capital. These profitabilities are expressed in nominal terms. Total profitability, estimated as the ratio of capital income to immobilized capital, is presented both at nominal and real terms, being the latter a nominal rate deflated by consumer price index.Concluding RemarksThe application of theAgroforestry Accounting Systemto these case studies allows an in-depth analysis of the private economies of dehesas and ranches. The applied methodology allows estimating physical, income and capital indicators in a standardized framework that includes market and non-market amenity values.The contemporary decline in livestock production could have important impacts given the role of natural resource management to the sustainability of mixed commercial-amenity consumption enterprises. These are critical in maintaining the structure and function of dehesa, conserving land, maintaining grazing-related habitat characteristics, and supporting the flow of ecosystem services. With the decline of commercial enterprises, the abandonment of forestry practices in dehesas will likely produce losses in natural and manufactured capital in the long term and it is uncertain how the current amenity values will persist. There is a potential risk of continued natural resource depletion if the market is not able to internalize natural capital losses, and government regulation and subsidies are not sufficient to avoid biodiversity and cultural losses from dehesa natural capital.In California, threats come from property subdivision and subsequent habitat and landscape fragmentation. Paradoxically, the two components that contribute most to the total profitability of the ranch case studies, land appreciation and amenities, can undermine woodland conservation. Amenity values contribute to oak woodland profitability, but values drop on a per hectare basis for large properties. This could accelerate subdivision. High rates of land appreciation like those so prevalent in the early years of the twenty-first century could enhance the trend of ranch landowners selling off small parcels to meet cash flow shortages. At present, escalating prices for corn and other livestock feeds in response to growing energy markets, and drought in US grain producing areas, is resulting in livestock being sold off at low prices to avoid feed costs, depressing livestock prices nationwide. California oak woodland ranches, with the majority of livestock feed coming from natural grasslands, may benefit from subsequent high values for grass and livestock products in the coming years, although in the meantime many ranchers may have given up commercial operations. Dehesa owners, with a greater reliance on supplemental feeds, may not experience these same benefits.These case study results, together with the literature on land prices and commercial profitability, show a cumulative increase in landowner amenity consumption and a decline in commercial operating profitability. With a persistent decline in commercial operating profitability and an uncertain future for landowner amenity preferences, markets and subsidies for ecosystem services, and for unpaid or low paid family labor, become important factors in the sustainable management of these oak woodlands. Amenity preferences and public non-market services turn out to be important factors and arguments for policy-makers to support landowners so that they would be able to maintain active ownerships, keeping the window open to finding further ways to conserve dehesa and ranch working landscapes.Our case study approach has strengths, but also weaknesses. Case studies provide an outstanding laboratory to develop innovations in extending income measurement and illustrating new findings in the economies of these working landscapes. The application of the Agroforestry Accounting System contributes to a more complete accounting of the economics of dehesas and ranches and to understanding the economic forces that drive management, which is crucial for research and policy decisions in the near future. These applied case studies offer a detailed analysis at the farm scale. Although the case study approach is not a statistical approach and is year-specific in our application, we provide results that can be compared with the ranges of other statistically representative studies. Moreover, we extend our profitability analysis using historical land appreciation data, to smooth annual price fluctuations that would obscure the long term trend, and compare it with the available results in the literature of dehesa and ranch economies. Our results have confirmed the trend shown in the results of other studies. Although the case study approach is not enough to make broader policy recommendations and to draw representative conclusions, it is crucial to understanding how these multiple-use complex systems work and to highlight the need for improved accounting and economic valuation t