语法复习.doc

Advanced English Grammar时（tense）一般过去时： simple past tense一般现在时：simple present tense一般将来时：simple future tense过去完成时：past perfect tense将来完成时：future perfect tense现在完成时：present perfect tense现在进行时：present progressive tense过去进行时：past progressive tense将来进行时：future progressive tense体 (aspect)进行体：the progressive aspect完成体：the perfective aspect语气 (mood)陈述语气：indicative mood祈使语气：imperative mood虚拟语气：subjunctive mood语素（morpheme）自由语素：free morpheme黏着语素：bound morpheme句子：陈述句：declarative sentence疑问句：interrogative sentence祈使句：imperative sentence感叹句：exclamatory sentence存现句：existential sentence分裂句： cleft sentence抽象名词：abstract nouns独立主格结构：nominative absolute construction限定词：(determiners)定冠词：definite article不定冠词：indefinite article物主代词：possessive pronoun不定物主代词：indefinite possessive pronoun单位词：partitives属格：genitive独立属格：independent genitive后置属格：post-genitive双重属格：double genitive悬垂分词: dangling participle主谓一致：subject-predicate agreement语法一致：grammatical agreement就近原则：principle of proximity动词：动态动词：dynamic verb静态动词：static verb谓语动词：predicative verb非谓语动词：non-finite verb限定性动词：finite verb非限定性动词：non-restrictive verb状语从句：adverbial clause时间状语从句：Adverbial clause of time地点状语从句：Adverbial clause of place方式状语从句：Adverbial clause of manner 让步状语从句：Adverbial clause of concession修饰性状语：adjuncts连接性状语：conjuncts评注性状语：disjuncts词法：morphology句法：syntax语篇：text助动词：auxiliary半助动词：semi-auxiliary情态助动词：Modal auxiliary基本助动词：primary auxiliary辨析题：1、双重属格2、can and may (课本page 38)Note the difference between the “possibility” expressed by can and that by may. In positive statements, can usually expresses “theoretical possibility”, while may expresses “factual possibility”, for example: Mr. Reed is in poor health. He can be ill at any time.Mr. Reed looks pale today. He may be ill.3、contrast between past progressive and simple past. (Page 26)(1) To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past; to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive. For example: It was a lovely day, and the sun was shining. We often use the past progressive to describe the background and the simple past for the action in story. For example: The crowds were waiting. Finally the president came. And we use two simple past verbs for one action after another. For example: When I head the crash, I ran to village.(2) To denote a mere past fact, we use the simple past; to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive. For example: he worked/was working all through the night(3) When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive, when the shorter action came in the middle of the longer one. For example: He was standing in line at the department store when someone tapped him on the shoulder.(4) In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is causal, unimportant and aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently. For example: I was talking to Margaret at the other day.(5) Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences: When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee. When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.4、contrast between present perfect and simple past. (Page 27) (1) Always use the present perfect when the time is not important, or not specified. Always use the simple past when the details about the time or place are specified or asked for. For example: We have been to Ireland. VShen did you go to Ireland? (2) There is also a difference of attitude that is often more important than the time factor in simple past and present participle. Thus in situations where either the present perfect or the simple past can be used, it is generally felt that they are interchangeable, but that the present perfect relates the action more directly to the present time.Therefore, present participle can also be regard to express two actions.(1) Finish action: It is used to refer to the present result of a past event still operating at the present moment. Usually dynamic, conclusion and resultative verbs are involved. For example: The water in the basin had frozen to ice because of the bitter coldness outside.Note difference: I read the book. (progress) VS I have read the book. (result)Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past. Example: He read War and Peace last week. （2）Unfinished action: If refers to the fact that an action or state extend over a period lasting up to the present moment, possibly extending into the future as well.5. He is foolish and He is being foolish.6. A charming lady and a charmed lady. (Page 148-14)The meaning of participle adjectives may be active or passive, -ing participle adjectives usually have active meanings, and ed forms passive meaning.So the first sentence means that the lady is attractive while the second sentence means that the lady is attracted by something.7. “hear sb do” and “hear sb doing”. (Page 64)If we say “I heard somebody do something”, we mean that somebody did something and I heard it. I heard the complete action from beginning to end.If we say “I heard somebody doing something”, we mean that somebody was doing something and I heard it. I heard somebody when she or he was in the middle of doing something. I hear only part of it.8. “regret to do” and “regret doing” 从句子结构上区分。 “to do” in the “regret to do” is regarded as the purpose of adverbial element. Whereas “regret + doing” constitutes verb-object relationship.简答题1. the use of passive voice (Page 77-81)(1) Verb constraintsNot all verbs can occur in the passive. Apart from linking and intransitive verbs, which have no objects, can not take the passive form, some transitive verbs do not occur in some sense, in the passive either. Verbs of this kind are called middle verbs or static verbs, including have, become, hold, etc. For example: we have friends all over the world. (Not Friends are had all over the world.)Other verbs can only be used in active voice include survive, let, race, get, flee, fit, escape, hold, equal, own, contain, etc. but some other static verbs such as hose of volition or attitude can be found in the passive easily: The police want him. He is wanted by police.Some transitive phrasal verbs also do not have passives. For example: Taiwan belongs to China. There are also passive verbs such as be born, be reputed, be supposed that have no actives. Some verbs function either as action verb or as static verbs, for example: measure, weigh, fit, and cost. We can use them in the passive only when they are thought of as action verbs.The passive becomes much rarer in combinations with other complex verb constructions such as modal auxiliaries, perfect, progressive and modal progressive, perhaps because of an avoidance of awkwardness of be being sequence.(2) Object constraintsWhether an active sentence can turn into the passive is also determined by the form of the object. While an object noun phrasal can easily be turned into the subject of passive sentence, a noun-finite clause cannot, for example: I intended to see you. (Not) To see you was intended.Coreference between a subject and a noun phrase object blocks the passive correspondence. This occurs with reflective pronouns, reciprocal pronouns and possessive pronouns:He taught himself English.(3) Meaning ConstraintsPassive sentence are often used when the speaker dose not know who the agent of the action is, or when he think it is unnecessary or untactful to mention the agent of the action. In context devoid of semantic intentions of this kind, it is necessary to use the active form, for example: Ive been robbed! （someone robed me） There are also some SVO constructions which cannot be transformed into passive without change of meaning. For example: She cant teach John. (= she is unable to teach John) The active and passive correspondences are not always of the same meaning especially when quantifiers and modal auxiliaries are involved: Every student knows one play of Shakespeare at least. One play of Shakespeare at least is known by every student. The shift from active to passive may change the meaning not only of modal construction but also of the perfective aspect: My grandfather has bought the house for me. The house has been bought for me by grandfather. When both the subject and the object are generic, there will be some difference between the active construction and its passive counterparts: Pandas eat bamboo. Bamboo is eaten by panda.(4) Context Constraints Sometimes the passive form is used to avoid an awkward change of the subject in the middle of a sentence, for example: The Prime Minister arrived back in London last night and immediately besieged by reporters. And at other times, the passive is used to achieve a better connection with the preceding and the following sentences, for example: The hunter fired at the bear and the bear was shot dead.(5) Genre ConstraintsGenerally speaking, the passive is more commonly used in informative than in imaginative writing, and is notably more frequent in the objective, impersonal style of scientific article, historical facts, news reporting and legal documents. Impersonal style is also often employed out of modesty or when some unpleasant statement has to made, for example: These books must be returned to the library by the date above.2. There are three types of explicit cohesion.1) Logical Devices Transitional words or phrases are usually exploited to show time, place, reason, addition, comparison, contrast, emphasis, exemplification, result, summary, etc. They include conjunctions, adverbial conjunctions, preposition phrases and other elements.2) Grammar Dev