西方经济学英文版.ppt

西方经济学economics economics 参考书 paula samuelson williamd nordhauseconomics 18editionthemcgraw hillcompanies inc 2005中国人民邮电出版社 economics unit1 natureandscopeofeconomicsunit2 theoryofdemandunit3 theoryofsupplyunit4 pricedeterminationunit5 elasticityofdemandunit6 priceelasticityofsupplyunit7 economiesoflargescaleproductionandexistenceofsmallfirmsunit8 productioncostunit9 perfectcompetitionunit10 monopolyunit11 monopolisticcompetition economics unit12 oligopolyunit13 consumerpriceindex cpiunit14 centralbank monetarypolicyunit15 inflationunit16 unemploymentunit17 roleofgovernment fiscalpolicyunit18 nationalincomeaccountingunit19 nationalincomeapplication standardoflivingunit20 keynestheoryofincomeandemploymentunit21 internationaltradeunit22 freetradeandprotection natureandscopeofeconomics 1 1whatiseconomics 1 2variousdefinitionsofeconomics1 3branchesofeconomicsmicroeconomicsmacroeconomics1 4thebasiceconomicproblems1 5conceptofopportunitycost1 6productionpossibilitycurve ppc 1 7reviewquestions 1 1whatiseconomics everywherehumanbeingsarefoundtomakeeffortsandearnmoneyandthenspendthismoneytosatisfytheirwants therefore theactivitiesconcerningtheearningandspendingofwealtharestudiedundereconomics eco 1 2variousdefinitionsofeconomics adamsmitheconomicsisastudyof anenquiryintothenatureandcausesofwealthofnations j s millseconomicsisastudyof thepracticalscienceoftheproductionanddistributionofwealth l robbinseconomicsisa sciencewhichstudieshumanbehaviourasarelationshipbetweenendandscarcemeanswhichhavealternativeuses 1 2variousdefinitionsofeconomics richardlipsey moderneco concerns a theallocationofasociety sresourcesamongalternativeusesandthedistributionofthesociety soutputamongindividualsandgroup b thewaysinwhichproductionanddistributionchangesovertime c theefficientandinefficienciesofeconomicsystems 1 2variousdefinitionsofeconomics generaldefinitioneconomicsisastudyofhowpeopleallocatetheirlimitedresourcessuchasland labourandcapitaltoprovidefortheirunlimitedwants microeconomics microeconomicsstudiestheeconomicdecisionmakingoffirmsandindividualsinamarketsetting microeconomics theissuesthatarestudiedundermicroeconomicanalysisare a howconsumersbehave b howbusinessfirmsmakechoices c howpricesaredeterminedinthemarkets d howtaxesandpricecontrolsaffectconsumersandproducers e howthestructureofmarketsaffecteconomicperformance f howwages interestrates rentandprofitsaredetermined g howincomeisdistributedamongfamilies macroeconomics macroeconomicsisastudyofeconomyasawholeanditconcernstherelationshipamongaggregate total measures macroeconomics theissuesthatarestudiedundermacroeconomicanalysisare a nationalincome b nation smoneysupplyandmoneydemand c thevalueofmoney d inflationanditsdeterminants e macroeconomicobjectivessuchaspricestability fullemployment balanceofpaymentsandeconomicgrowth f governmentpolicies e g monetaryandfiscalpolicies g publicfinance e g governmentrevenueandexpenditure 1 4thebasiceconomicproblems inaneconomy peoplehaveunlimiteddesireforgoodsandservices g s i e unlimitedwants buttheresourcesintheworldarelimitedandsowecannotsatisfyallourwantsandareforcedtochooseastowhichgoodstoproduce therefore scarcityandchoiceor limitedresourcesandunlimitedwants sumupthebasiceconomicproblem choiceisdeterminedby i scaleofpreferenceii opportunitycost 1 4thebasiceconomicproblems wecansummarisethisideaintothefollowingfigure 1 4thebasiceconomicproblems aswearefacedwiththeproblemofscarcity thereare3importanteconomicdecisionstobeconsidered i whatgoods servicestobeproducedandinwhatquantityi e howmuchtobeproduced thisconcernswiththeallocationofscarceresourcesamongalternativeuses ii howorbywhatmethodgoods servicesshouldbeproduced thisconcernswithchoosingthemostefficientmethodofproduction iii forwhomaregoods servicestobeproduced i e whoaretoenjoythegoods servicesproduced thisconcernswiththedistributionofsuchgoods services 1 5conceptofopportunitycost opportunitycostofsatisfyingawantisthenextbestalternativethathastobeforgone i e thecostofgivingupsomethinginordertoobtainsomethingelse 1 5conceptofopportunitycost 1 5conceptofopportunitycost 1 5conceptofopportunitycost e g apersonhas 5andhecanspendonchocolateorchewinggumoracombinationofboth priceofabarofchocolate 0 50priceofabarofchewinggum 0 20chocolatechewinggum10085610415220025 1 5conceptofopportunitycost thereare6attainablecombinationsavailabletohimusingallhismoney assumingthatheisconsuming6barsofchocolateand10barsofchewinggum theopportunitycostofthe8thbarofchocolateiswhathemustgiveupinordertogetthat8thbar whichinthiscaseis5barsofchewinggum 10 5 thelineontheabovediagramshowsaconstantopportunitycostofconsuming2additionalbarsofchocolateis5barsofchewinggum opportunitycostisrepresentedbytheslopeofthatline 1 6productionpossibilitycurve ppc productionpossibilitycurveisdefinedasthecurvethatshowsthegreatestpossiblequantitiesofgoodsthatcanbeproducedwiththeavailableresourcesatagivenleveloftechnology example combinationconsumptiongoodsinvestmentgoodsa6500b6401 0c5103 6d4104 6e1005 2f05 3 1 6productionpossibilitycurve ppc allcombinationsonorinsidetheppcareattainablewhilethosecombinationsoutsidetheppcareunattainablepresently giventheresourcesandtheleveloftechnology however combinationsofgoodsinsidetheppcimplythatresourcesarenotfullyutilisedoremployed 1 7reviewquestions 1 theproblemofscarcityrequirescertaineconomicdecisionstobeconsidered whatarethesedecisions 2 defineandexplain withexamples thefollowingeconomicconcepts a opportunitycostb productionpossibilitycurve theoryofdemand 2 1definition2 2lawofdemand2 3individualdemandscheduleandcurve2 4marketdemandscheduleandcurve2 5achangeinquantitydemandedandachangeindemand2 6factorswhichcausethedemandcurvetoshift2 7reviewquestions 2 1definition demandreferstotherangeofquantitiesofacommodity whichaconsumeriswillingandabletobuyatdifferentpricelevelsatagiventime 2 2lawofdemand ifallotherthingsremainconstant ceterisparibus thehighertheprice thelowerwillbethequantitydemandedandviceversa 2 3individualdemandscheduleandcurve thetablebelowisthedemandschedule whichliststhequantityofacommoditythatwouldbedemandedatvariouspricelevelswithagivenincome itshowstherelationshipbetweenquantitydemandedandprice 2 3individualdemandscheduleandcurve thedemandcurveisagraphicalrepresentationofthedatainthedemandschedule itslopesdownwardsfromlefttorightindicatingthatthequantitydemandedincreasesasthepricefalls 2 4marketdemandscheduleandcurve marketdemandisthetotaldemandofalltheconsumersforaparticulargood itcanalsobederivedbythelateralsummationoftheconsumers demandcurves 2 4marketdemandscheduleandcurve 2 5achangeinquantitydemandedandachangeindemand achangeinquantitydemandedisamovementalongthedemandcurve thisisbroughtaboutbychangesinthepriceofthegood achangeindemandistheshiftofthedemandcurve thus anincreaseordecreaseindemandmeansthatgreaterorsmallerquantityispurchasedatthesameprice thisshiftofthedemandcurveresultsfromachangeinanyofthedeterminantsofdemand 2 5achangeinquantitydemandedandachangeindemand 2 6factorswhichcausethedemandcurvetoshift a tastesandpreferencesconsumers tastesandpreferenceschangeovertime theymaybeinfluencedbyfactorslikeage educationandadvertisements b incomeanincrease ordecrease inincomewouldusuallyleadtomore orless ofagoodbeingbought c futureexpectationsifconsumersexpectpricestoriseinthefuture theywouldbuymoreofthegoodsinordertoavoidpayingmoreinfuture however iftheyexpectpricestofall theywouldchecktheirconsumption 2 6factorswhichcausethedemandcurvetoshift d changesinpopulationchangesinthesizeandstructureofpopulationwouldaffectdemand generally anincreaseinpopulationwouldleadtoanincreaseindemand e pricesofothergoodscomplements coffeeandsugar ifpriceofcoffeefalls morecoffeewouldbebought thiswouldleadtoanincreaseindemandforsugar substitutes butterandmargarine ifthepriceofmargarinefalls consumerswouldshifttheirdemandfrombuttertomargarine whichischeapernow f governmentpoliciesifthegovernmentintroducesnewtaxesorincreasesexistingtaxrate thetaxpayers incomeswouldfall thusreducingtheirdemandforgoods 2 7reviewquestions 1 distinguish changeinquantitydemanded from changeindemand 2 whatfactorswillcausethedemandcurvetoshiftright theoryofsupply 3 1definition3 2lawofsupplydefinition3 3individualsupplyscheduleandcurve3 4marketsupplycurve3 5distinctionbetweenmovementalongsupplycurveandshiftofthesupplycurve3 6factorswhichcausethesupplycurvetoshift3 7reviewquestions 3 1definition supplyreferstothequantityofacommoditythatisofferedforsaleatagivenpriceandataparticularpointoftime 3 2lawofsupplydefinition ifallotherthingsremainconstant ceterisparibus thehighertheprice thegreaterwillbethequantitysuppliedandviceversa 3 3individualsupplyscheduleandcurve supplyscheduleshowstherelationshipbetweenquantitysuppliedofagoodandthedifferentpricelevelofthatgood supplycurveisagraphicalrepresentationofthesupplyschedule 3 3individualsupplyscheduleandcurve 3 4marketsupplycurve marketsupplyreferstothetotalsupplyofaparticularcommoditybyalltheproducersatapointoftime itisaddinghorizontally alltheindividualsupplycurvesateachdifferentpricelevel 3 5distinctionbetweenmovementalongsupplycurveandshiftofthesupplycurve a movementalongsupplycurveitisalsoknownasachangeinquantitysuppliedasaresultofachangeinthepriceofthecommodity allotherfactorsremainconstant 3 5distinctionbetweenmovementalongsupplycurveandshiftofthesupplycurve b shiftofthesupplycurveitisalsoknownasachangeinsupplyasaresultofachangeintheconditionsofsupplywhilethepriceofthatcommodityremainunchanged 3 6factorswhichcausethesupplycurvetoshift a naturalcalamitiesanynaturalcalamitiessuchasearthquakes flood droughtetc willreducesupplyandhencewillshiftsupplycurvetotheleft b costofproductionanychangesinthecostofproductionasaresultofanychangesinthepriceoffactorinputwillshiftthesupplycurve c stateoftechnologyadvancementintechnologywillcertainlyreducethecostofproductionandhencewillincreaseoutputbyshiftingsupplytotheright d governmentpoliciesintroductionofindirecttaxesorsubsidieswillaffectthecostofproductionandhencewillshiftthesupplycurve e economicandpoliticalstabilityaneconomicrecessionorpoliticalunrestwillresultinsuppliersbeinguncertainaboutthemarketdemandandtheirbusinessconditions therefore theirsupplymaycontract 3 7reviewquestions 1 distinguish changeinquantitysupplied from changeinsupply 2 whatfactorswillcausethesupplycurvetoshiftleft pricedetermination 4 1definition4 2effectontheequilibriumpriceandquantity4 2 1whenconditionsofdemandchanged withsupplyunchanged 4 2 2whenconditionsofsupplychanged withdemandunchanged 4 2 3whenbothconditionsofdemandandsupplychanged4 2 4whengovernmentimposesanindirecttax4 2 5whengovernmentprovidessubsidytoproducers4 3pricecontrol4 3 1priceceiling4 3 2pricefloor4 4reviewquestions 4 1definition equilibriumpriceariseswhenallthegoodsinthemarketwillbeclearedatthatprice equilibriumquantityariseswhenwhatisbeingbroughttothemarketbythesellerisbeingboughtbytheconsumersattheequilibriumprice 4 1definition 4 2 1whenconditionsofdemandchanged withsupplyunchanged ifthereisachangeintheconditionofdemandthatcausethedemandcurvetoshifttotheleft therewillbeanewequilibriumpriceandquantityasshownindiagram i below 4 2 2whenconditionsofsupplychanged withdemandunchanged ifthereisachangeintheconditionofsupplythatcauseittoshifttotheleft thiswillresultinanewequilibriumpriceandquantityasshownindiagram ii below 4 2 3whenbothconditionsofdemandandsupplychanged iftherearechangesinboththeconditionsofdemandandsupply thentheequilibriumpriceandquantitycanonlybedeterminedprovidedweknow thedirectionsoftheshift leftorright themagnitude distance oftheshift theelasticity slope ofbothdemandandsupplycurves 4 2 4whengovernmentimposesanindirecttax theimpositionofanindirecttaxwillreducetheamountthatfirmsarepreparedtosupplyateachdifferentpricelevel theeffectscanbeshownbelow 4 2 4whengovernmentimposesanindir