语言学 总结.docx

Chapter 1 introductionDefinition of linguisticsThe scientific study or systematic study of languages.Science-linguistics-literatureScopes of linguisticsMicrolinguistics微观语言学The study of language itself; it studies the various aspects of language, including sound, form and meaning.Sound: phonetics, phonologyForm: morphology, syntaxMeaning: semantics, (pragmatics)MacrolinguisticsThe study of language in relation to other disciplines (interdisciplinary studies):Psycholinguistics: language and mind, language acquisition, comprehension and productionNeurolinguistics: language processing and representationStylistics: science of literature, etc.Some Linguistic Distinctions1.Descriptive & prescriptive grammars2.Synchronic & diachronic linguistics 共时语言学 历时语言学3.Langue 语言 & parole言语 by Saussure4.Competence语言能力 & performance语言应用 by Chomsky 5.Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relations（横）组合关系和（纵）聚合关系 6.Functionalism 功能主义& formalism 形式主义 A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationsDesign Features- - Features that define our human languageI.Arbitrariness 任意性II.Duality 双重性/两重性III.Productivity创造性IV.Interchangeability互换性V.Displacement 移位性VI.Specialization 专门性VII.Cutural transmission传递性 VIII.Discreteness 离散性IX.Learnability习得性II Design Features of Language1. Arbitrariness: forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning II Design Features of LanguageIn other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. Look at the following diagram. word form meaning onomatopoeia象声词 112Apes gibber.猴子唧唧叫Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧Bulls bellow. Cows moo 老牛哞哞哞Ducks quack.鸭子嘎嘎嘎Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜Mice squeak. 老鼠吱吱叫Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫onomatopoeia象声词 2Bees buzz; they go bzzz. Birds chirp; they go tweet tweet. Cuckoos go cuckoo. Donkeys bray; they go hee-haw. Doves coo. Geese honk. Horses neigh or whinney. Lions roar. Owls hoot; they go hoo. Roosters crow; they go cock-a-doodle-doo. Turkeys go gobble gobble. Wolves howl. Design Features of LanguageAnimals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. Arbitrary and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. “It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.” (Widdowson)II Design Features of Language The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign and its meaning, however, is also conventional. Read the following joke A naughty boy beginning to learn ABC is bothering his teacher repeatedly: “Why we shall read it A?” “Why we shall read it B?” The annoyed teacher pinched his nose. “Auch, my nose!” The annoyed teacher pinched his ear. “Auch, my ear!” Then the teacher asked: “Why you call it your ear and nose?” “It is so named and so called.” “Alright, ABC is so named and so called.”Design Features of Language:duality Also called double articulation( 双重性）: the property of having two levels of structure. 人类语言的双重性主要是指（1 ）用本身无意义的语音构成有意义的语言单位这一事实；（2 ）此外，还指用一个层次上的成分构成另一个层次上的更大单位。“ 分层 一级一级的组织 是有限的手段无限使用的物质表现，是人类语言最显著的特征。” （Bolinger & Sears ） Design Features of LanguageproductivityAlso called Creativity: the ability that we all have to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including sentences that we have never heard before, but that are appropriate to the situation in which they are uttered.This feature equips us with the ability to produce completely new utterances and ideas.Design Features of Languagedisplacement While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language.Language is a tool of communicationRoman JacobsonWhat do we communicate?Functions of Language1.Phatic function/communion交感功能 2.Directive function指令功能3.Informative function信息传达4.Interrogative function信息索取5.Expressive function感情功能6.Evocative function激发功能7.Performative function施为功能8.Recreational function娱乐功能9.Metalinguistic function元语言功能, etc.What functions of language being used ？Good morning, Ms Zhang! Hello, Mary. Its really cold today. Yeah, really.Lets begin our class now.The main design features of languages are arbitrariness, duality, creativity and displacement.I love this class. parody (仿化） What I mean is, I do hope you can enjoy the classChapter 2 phonetics The articulators/organs of speech(Page 27 )Three cavities related to speech:Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔Oral cavity 口腔.Nasal cavity 鼻腔Vocal OrgansInitiator /Producer 1.pharyngeal cavity 2. oral cavity3.nasal cavityChapter 2 The Sounds of Language (1)Consonants: Place of Articulation1.bilabials p, b, m w 双唇音2.labiodentals f, v 唇齿音3.dentals/interdentals 、 齿音4.alveolars t,d,l,n.s,z,r 齿龈音5.palatals t d j 腭音6.velars k g 软腭音7.glottal h 喉音 Cardinal VowelsA set of arbitrary reference points fixed with the tongue put in most easily felt positions. Distinctive Features p.40 Also called phonemic features are features that distinguish one phoneme from another. The feature of being with one and without the other is represented by two values: +, - Features that are not distinctive are called redundant featuresWhat Are the Distinctive Features?m vs.b: nasalm: +bilabial, +voice, +nasalb: +bilabial, +voice, -nasal What about b vs.d ?Page 40 Free Variation 自由音变A. Definition: Two or more sounds occur in the same position without change of meaning.E.g.:direction i/ ai; either i/ aiB. Free variation does not change the meaning of a word; it is the result of differences in pronunciation or dialect. 自由音变vs.不自由音变(Add)不自由音变指在语流中只要出现音变条件，音变现象就必然发生，如北京话的上声变调:shui21435zhun214 （水准）。自由音变指在语流中虽出现音变条件，但音变现象不一定必然发生，变和不变是两可的，因环境和个人习惯而异。如北京话的“七、八”变调。“七、八 ”本调为阴平，位于去声前可读成阳平。如“七天七夜”，“七上八下”，“七嘴八舌”， “七零八落”等。Some rules in phonology 1 Sequential rules: which govern the combination of sound in a particular language (p.42) /S/ + /p， t ，k/ + /r， l， j， w/ In English, there may be at most three consonants before the peak and four after it. e.g. : sixths Some rules in phonology 2 (35-36)Liason rule连音 :later on, there areElision rule省音: mostlyAssimilation rule同化, including 1. progressive顺同化: stops, stabs 2. regressive逆同化: immovable, ingratitude, think, sun glassesAssimilation Also called co-articulation. One sound takes on some or all of a neighbouring sound.同化是语流音变中最常见的现象。为了发音便利，相邻音互相影响、相互调整，使原来不相同、不相近的音，变为相同或相近的音。如鼻音化nasalizationSyllable音节 Chapter 3 MorphologyChapter 3 Morphology 形态学 Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. Morphology falls into two categories: inflectional morphology (study of inflections) and lexical/derivational morphology (study of word formation).Basic units of meaningWord-formation1.Compounding 合成法Lookers-on2.Derivation 派生法Sad sadness3. Conversion 转化法Guess , a guess4. Backformation 逆生法Donation, donate5.clipping/shortening/abbreviation 缩略法Demonstration, demo6. Blending 拼缀法Brunch: breakfast+lunch7. acronym: 首字母拼音词APEC8.Intialism首字母缩略词GPS9. Borrowing 借词法 kung fuCompounding When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will often be in this category. E.g.Ice-creamWhen they are not, the class of the second or final word will decide the grammatical category. E.g.GreenhouseChapter 4 syntaxSyntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. Simply speaking, it is the study of the formation of sentences. There are different approaches to syntax in the linguistic field:The traditional approach, the structural approach the generative grammar are discussed here.P75IC analysis 1直接成分分析法The father of American structuralism Leonard Bloomfield. Theoretical base: a sentence not only has a linear structure, but a hierarchical structure made up of layers of layers of word groups. Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法a descriptive approachA sentence is viewed as made up by two-part constructions on a series of levels or layers. The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones. The word groups in a sentence in called its constituents 成分.Immediate Constituents Analysis is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings 二分法until the level of single words is reached. Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分 the final cuts are known as the ultimate constituents (UCs) 最终成分.IC Analysis 4：Vertical bars （add)IC Analysis 5 ： brackets p.76IC Analysis 4：A Tree DiagramProblems with IC-analysis 6 p.83 TG Grammar Originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. TG Grammar has seen several stages of development, involving putting forward, revising, and canceling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models. TG grammarInnateness hypothesis 天赋论 （269-270）Competence and performance （16-17）Generative TransformationDeep structure and surface structure（85）Standard Theory （85）Language Acquisition Device (LAD)语言习得机制Chomsky believes that a child is born with LAD, which probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-making device（语言的假设,linguistic universal(语言普遍性) , and an evaluation procedure(评价 ).5 SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language. (p.104) 106 107 108 CommunicationLinguistic meaningSentence meaning Lexical meaningGrammatical meaningSpeakers meaningParalinguistic meaning Non-linguistic meaningLexical and structural meaningGrammatical meaning (syntactic and morphological)Functional wordsLexical meaning Content wordsIt is arguable that the functional words have any referent in the physical world.Leechs “Seven Meanings”1. conceptual meaning2. connotative3. social 4. affective5. reflective6. collocative7. thematic Denotation and ConnotationDenotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. 指称意义Connotation is not the basic meaning of the word but some emotive or evaluative meanings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind. 内涵意义Leechs “Seven Meanings” 111-1.Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning/cognitive meaning, central meaning, core meaning)概念义-词的核心意义. 2. Connotative meaning (above its purely conceptual content.)内涵/附加义Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, unstable, indeterminate and open-ended.Leechs “Seven Meanings”112 e.g. pig, dog, cat, etc. old (and worn out), blue (and down-hearted), tall (and handsome)A monkey: a child who is full of annoying playfulness and trick A parrot: a person who repeats, often without understanding, the words or actions of another3. Social meaning 社会义113 (about the contexts or the social circumstances of language use) as reflected in dialects, slangs, jargons and other styles of language use. e.g. steedhorse gee-gee diminutive tiny wee Leechs “Seven Meanings”1134. Affective meaning/emotive (the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer)感情义 e.g.nigger, fascist, politician, statesman, cop5.Reflective/reflected meaning (association with another sense of the same expression)反映义 e.g. intercourse, nucleur Leechs “Seven Meanings”1166. Collocative meaning: The associations of a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context搭配义.Meticulous, fussy; pretty, handsome, etc. Full (moon), complete victoryLeechs “Seven Meanings”116Thematic meaning主题义: Meaning that arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message. Its mainly a matter of choice b/t alternative grammatical constructions.Jack was presented with a gold medal.A gold medal was presented to Jack.The Olympic Committee presented Jack with a gold medal.P118 p102-p125 Chapter 6 Pragmaticsdefinition of pragmatics Micropragmatics Reference 指称143Deixis 指示144Anaphora 回指 145Presuppposition 预设146Reference 144The act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something by inference.The philosophy of language-Macrolinguisitics Speech act theory by J.Austin1950s, Oxford philosopher John Austin initiated the first major theory in the study of language use. The major idea of the theory is that things can be done with words.Austins Speech Act Theory 奥斯丁的言语行为理论 p.148A speaker is not merely saying something to describe states of affairs, but he is also actively doing things. After he has done it, the situation of the outside world will change accordingly. The action of producing an utterance is seen as consisting of several related speech acts: Speech acts 1481.Locutionary act 言内行为/发话行为：the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance;3.llocutionary act 言外行为/施为行为 (intended meaning) (ordering, requiring, stating) 4. Perlocutionary act 言后行为/言后之果 (intended effect), ( persuading, convincing, intimidating, appeasing, exasperating, assuring)Indirect Speech Acts Speakers often perform one illocutionary act implicitly by way of performing another explicitly. The explicitly performed act is used to convey a direct speech act and the speaker relies on background knowledge he shares with the hearer to express his real intention. Classification of iIlocutionary act by Searl 150Representatives 阐述类: Its cold today.Directives 指令类 Close the window please.Commissives 承诺类 Ill fix it.Expressives 表达类 Im sorry.Declarations宣告类 I declare the meeting open. The Conversational Implicature 会话含义 Proposed by Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice through the William James lectures he delivered at Harvard in 1967. Conversational implicature 会话含义 154Conversational implicaturesA kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.When the speaker makes a blatant show of flouting one of the maxims, he is actually trying to lead the hearer to look for the implied meaning. The Cooperative Principle 153-7 Background: People do not usually say things directly, they tend to imply them. Therefore, there exists a problem: How people manage to convey the logical semantics (implicature). Grice found that there is some regularity in conversation. CP and its maxims 154The maxim of quality 质量准则The maxim of quantity 数量准则The maxim of relation 关系准则The maxim of manner 方式准则 Maxims of Quality Supermaxim: Try to make your contribution one that is true.6 Maxims of PP (158)Maxim of Tact 得体准则Maxim of Generosity 慷慨准则Maxim of Approbation 赞扬准则Maxim of Modesty 谦虚准则Maxim of Agreement 赞同准则Maxim of Sympathy 同情准则Maxim of Tact 得体准则“White lies” in conversations:A： Shall we go out for dinner this evening?B: m afraid I will have to deal with my homework.Maxim of Generosity 慷慨准则Associated with superficially nice:Would you mind I wonder if you couldCould youMaxim of Approbation 赞扬准则You look smart today!What a marvelous meal youve cooked!Maxim of Modesty 谦虚准则That was silly of me.How stupid of me!Maxim of Agreement 赞同准则A: The book is very well written.B: Yes, well written as a whole. But there are some rather boring patches. Dont you think?Maxim of Sympathy 同情准则160Used in either a congratulation or condolenceI am so happy your daughter got first prize!I am terribly sorry about your cat. Post-Gricean Developments 1. The Q-and R-principles First proposed in his “Toward a New Taxonomy for Pragmatic Inference: Q-Based and R-Based Implicatures”The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grices Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.Post-Gricean Developments 2. The Relevance Theory Proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. From the speakers side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear ones intention to express something. This act they call ostensive act. In other words, a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential. Chapter 8 SociolinguisticsLanguage is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone.Ralph Waldo Emerson Once you open your mouth, you are placed. Pygmalion by Bernard ShawPoints to cover 1. special terms: Standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins and creoles, code switching, language sexism 2. discussion: Differences between English and Chinese in terms of linguistic taboos and euphemism The relationship between language and genderSociolinguistics 196 The study of language in relation to society. It s