Logic in Argumentative Writing(1)

LogicinArgumentativeWriting Argumentation Thepurposeofexpositionistoinform thepurposeofargumentation ontheotherhand istoconvince topersuadethereadertochangehismindorbehavior Ifyouwanttowriteagoodargumentativeessay youshoulddoyourbesttomeetthefollowingrequirements Adebatablepoint merestatementsoffacts Statementofpersonalpreference religiousbeliefisbasedonfaith notonlogicorverifiablefacts Viewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverified Weuselogiceverydaytofigureouttestquestions planourbudgets anddecidewhotodate Weborrowfromthevocabularyoflogicwhenwesay Brilliantdeduction oreven Idon twanttoargueaboutit Inthestudyoflogic however eachofthesetermshasaspecificdefinition andwemustbeclearontheseifwearetocommunicate Proposition astatementthatconsistsofacarefullyconsideredopinionorjudgment Premise astatementthatyouacceptastrueanduseasabasefordevelopingotherideas Inductivereasoning归纳型 Inductionreferstotheprocessofexaminingparticulardetailsandthenarrivingataconclusionbasedonthatevidence Forexample supposeyouwereaninvestigatorandyouwereaskedtolookintothecausesofafirewhichhadhappenedinafamousdepartmentstore Aftersomeinspectionandresearch youlearnedthatthefirewascausedbyfaultyelectricalwiring Thenyouwereexpectedtofindwhichwirecompanyhadinstalledthewiring Aftermakinginquiriesofthemanagerofthestoreaboutthematter youcametoknowthattheMunicipalWorksCompanywasthecontractorunit Furtherresearchenablesyoutohavediscoveredthat60 ofthebuildingswiredbythecompnaycaughtfirewithintwoyears andofthosefires 85 wereduetofaultyekectricalwiring Basedonthisdata then youcouldreasonablyconclude BuildingswiredbytheMunicipalWorksCompanyarelikelytohavefaultywiring Notethatyoucannotreasonablyconcludethatallbuildingswiredbythiscompanyhavefaultywiring becauseyourevidencedoesnotsupportthatconclusion all Inductionreasoningissomewhatmorecommoninargumentation itbeginswithfactsandbuildsfromthemtoageneralconclusion Inpracticeawriterwillusuallyfinditmoreconvenienttoindicatehisconclusionfirstandthenbringforwardtheevidencewhichsupportsit Thisisonlyamatterofarrangement however anddoesnotdenytheessentialorderofparticulartogeneral Inductionwillbefallaciouswhenitfailstoobservecertainrules whichmaybecalledthelawsofevidence 论据法则 1 Evidencemustbeaccurate 2 Evidencemustberelevant Womenmorepreferluxurythanmen Figureswhichshowthatwomenweargoldrings necklaces andearrings orluxuriousdresses Accuracy Relevancy 3 Evidencemustbecomplete DeductiveReasoning Logicalsyllogism twopremisesandaninferenceorconclusion 1 thecategoricalsyllogism绝对三段式Allhardandgreenapplesaresour Thisappleishardandgreen Thereforethisappleissour Allthingsthatpeoplewanttodowellandtoscoreachievementsmustbelaidonsolidfoundation LeonardoDaVincilaidasolidfoundationbydrawingeggsforhimtocreatefamouspaintings ThereforeDaVincibecamefamousforhisgreatartisticachievements TheHypotheticalSyllogism假设三段式 Ifitistruethatallhardgreenapplesarebitter andifthisappleishardandgreen thenletusbesurethatthisappleisbitter ThePartSyllogism部分三段式 Nolegitimatedescriptionsofsexareevilthings Pornographic Some publicationsareevilthings Therefore pornographicpublicationsarenotlegitimateandthegovernmentshoulddosomethingaboutthesituation TheAlternativeSyllogism选择三段式 Eithertobeyoungortobeoldisvalued Tobeoldisvalued Therefore tobeyoungisnotvalued Eithertobeyoungortobeoldisvalued Tobeoldisnotvalued Therefore tobeyoungisvalued Example1 Universitiesarefullofknowledge Thefreshmenbringalittlein andtheseniorstakenoneaway andknowledgeaccumulates HarvardPresidentA L LowellPremise1Freshmenbringalittle knowledge in Premise2SeniorstakenoneawayPremise3KnowledgeaccumulatesConclusionUniversitiesarefullofknowledge Indrawinglogicalconclusionsitdoesnotmatterwhetherthestatementsweacceptastruearereasonableorsensible Thisisbecausewedependentirelyupontheformofthestatementsandnotuponwhatwearetalkingabout Thus ifweacceptthefollowingstatementsastrue 1 Allwhalesaremammals 2 Allmammalsarewarm bloodedanimals 3 Allwarm bloodedanimalsaresubjecttocolds thenwemustconcludethat4 Allwhalesaresubjecttocolds TheCharacteristicsoftheargumentationAnargumentativeessayconsistsofproposition evidenceanddemonstration Therearethreecharacteristicsinanargumentativeessay A TakingastandpointinthesisB RefutingtheoppositioninargumentC Reasoningthingsoutinyourcase ThefallaciesinreasoningFallaciesoffaultyinference errorscausedbydrawingthewrongconclusionfromevidence hastygeneralization basedoninsufficientdataorondatathatisnotrepresentative oversimplifiedgeneralizationposthoc ergopropterhoc Fallaciesofirrelevance errorsinreasoningwhichthewritertriestoignoreorevadetheissuebydirectingthereader sattentiontosomethingirrelevantargumentumandhominem argumenttotheman Adpopulum tothecrowd appealingtothepeople amethodwhichflattersandpleasespeople amethodoftenusedbypoliticians Itassertsthatsinceeveryoneapproves itmustberightorgood Buythiscar Itisthemostpopularcarintheworld Youwanttobelikearichman drinkXOwines Youaremasters weareyourservants ignoringthequestionMyadministrationisnotcorruptbecausethestatebudgetisbalanced andmydevotionanddedicationtothefinepeopleofthisgreatstateisthereforeevident Fallaciesofassumption errorsinwhichsomethingfalseorunprovedisassumedtobetrue ortakenforgranted Beggingthequestionisatypicaloneofthosefallacies Itisthefallacyofgivingtheconclusionasevidenceorchangingthewordingtoprovesomething Thatmovieisveryfrighteningbecauseitisscary Wewillliveforeverbecausewehaveimmortalsouls Fallaciesofconfusion errorscausedbyconfusingonethingwithanotheronthebasisofsomeresemblance Analogiesareusefulforexplanation butrememberthattheycanneverbeusedtoproveanything falseanalogy confusingwhatistrueinonecasewithwhatistrueinasimilarcase Inthisfallacy twoeventsoritemsarecomparedthatdonothaveenoughsimilaritiestopredictthatwhathappenedintheonecasewillhappeninthesecond Thus theconclusionarrivedatisfalse TheUnitedStatestodayisjustlikeancientRome TheU S economyisunstable thereiswidespreadunemployment andthepeopleonlywanttobeentertained Therefore wecanexpecttheUnitedStatestodeclineandfalljustlikeancientRomedid either orfallacy thefallacythatmakesapresumptuouschoicebetweenalternativesregardlessofotherpossibilities Thelady spursewasstolenjustnow Shelosttwothousanddollarsaltogether Thosetwoyoungmen eithertheonewithlonghairortheotherwithabeard mustbethievesbecauseIsawthemstandingbehindher tuquoquefallacy IfIamguilty youareguiltytoo andeverybodyhasashare Weareofficialsinthisarea Wehaveservedforyourinterest wemerityourapplause andifthereisanyfaultwhateverinthematter youmustshareitwithus Exercise1 Whichtypeoffallacyisbeingcommitted IwantanewSantanabecauseallthepeopleinmyneighborhoodhaveSantanacars Italkedtothreestudentsinmyclasswhoareagainstnuclearpower Iguessedeverybodyisagainstit Itrainedyesterday Iamgettingacoldtoday Ibelievethatraincausescolds AllEnglishmenareconservative Janeiswrongaboutthequestion Iknowsheiswrongbecausewhatshesaysissimplyincorrect XiaoWangthinksweshoulddisbandarmy Hisopinionisworthless Afterall heisantiwarRadical Allcountriesintheworldusemilitaryforcetoenforcetheirlaws IftheUnitedNationswantstoenforceitsrulings itshouldusemilitaryforce Writingisaskill justasdrivingacarisaskill Tolearntodrivewell allyouhavetodoistomemorizeafewsimplerulesandalwaysfollowthenstrictly Itshouldbejustaseasytolearnhowtowrite Exercise2 Makeacommentontheevidenceforeachofthefollowingarguments Youhaveabetterchanceofbeingfamousifyouaresmallinheight LookatNapoleon hewasasmallman yethebecameEmperoroftheFrench ThereisnodoubtthattheWelshareamusicalpeople TherearefiveWelshmeninourchoir andtheyallhaveexcellentvoices Thepreacherwasattemptingtoshowtothemeetingthatalcoholwasverybadforpeopletodrink Hedroppedawormintoajarofalcohol Thewormsooncurledupanddied Adrunkmanatthemeetingsaidthatitprovedthat ifyousufferedfromworms youshoulddrinkalcohol TheEnglishwordmalariacomesfromtwoItalianwordsmalariameaning badair Itwasnoticedthatpeoplewhosufferedfrommalariausuallylivednearmarshy muddy swampy ground andthatthereforemalariawascausedbythe badair fromthemarshes BadmintonisoneofthemostpopularsportsinBritain Ifyoudon tbelieveme justaskanyoneinanybadmintonclub Ofcourseheisguilty Ifhewereinnocenthewouldhavedisapprovedthesechargeslongago Wecanrecognizethatathleteswhoparticipateinmajorsportsmustbegivenspecialconsiderationwithinourgradingsystem orwecanlettheuniversitysinkintoathleticoblivion ARGUMENTATION Ifyouhaveeverwitnessedacouplequarreling youwillnodoubtknowwhatargumentis Inwritinghowever argumentdoesnotmeanaknockdownconfrontation Thepurposeofwritinganargumentistoconvince soargumentisalsocalledpersuasion whichisanattempttoleadthereaderstobelievethattheopinionaboutsomethingisthecorrectoneandtoinducethemtoadoptitastheirown Typicalorformalargumentsincludefourstepsasfollows 1 Acleartheme Produceaclearthemealsocalledpropositionthatthewriterarguesfor 2 Sufficientevidence Showtheevidenceorthereasonsthatsupporttheargument Evidenceincludesexamples facts figures reasons andquotationsfromauthorities 3 Refutation Opposingviewstorefute 4 Conclusion Summarizethemainpoints endwithseriousorhumorousattitudeorendbycallingformoreattentiontotheissueoraction Argumentfrequentlymakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting description narration andaboveallexposition forargumentandexpositionareverycloselyrelated Likeexposition itappealstothereader sunderstandingofacertainsubjectsetforthbythewriter Butunlikeexpositionwhichinformsandexplains argumentconvincesthereaderofthetruthofaproposition Ifyourelyonbooksormagazinearticlesforsupportinginformation besuretoidentifyyoursourcesandpresenttheinformationaccurately Sometimesthebestwaytosupportyourownargumentistorefuteorshowtheweaknessesof anopposingargument Inthisparagraph forexample awriteruseshistoricalfactstodiscreditaviewcontrarytohisown Proposal AmericatheBeautiful shouldnotreplace TheStarSpangledBanner asournationalanthem Peoplewhodismiss TheStar SpangledBanner as unAmerican becauseitstunederivesfromanEnglishdrinkingsongmustbeunawareoftheanthem sgenuineAmericanroots DuringtheWarof1812 WashingtonlawyerFrancisScottKeyheardthatafriendhadbeencapturedbytheBritishnavy whichwasanchoredoffBaltimore scoast Bravely hesailedouttoobtainapromiseofrelease buttheBritishwereabouttobombardFortMcHenry andsoKeyandhiscompanionsweredetainedforaweek DuringthenightofSeptember13 1814 Keywatchedovertherampartsexpectingtheforttofall Atdawn tohissurpriseandjoy thegiantflagwasstillthere andhebegantowritehisheroicpoem Itwaspublishedasahandbill pairedwiththeEnglishmelody andsobecamepopularthroughoutthenewnation Befairwhenyourefuteanopposingargument usefactstobolsteryourcase notinsultsorsarcasm Insomecase themosteffectivesupportforyourargumentmaybeexamplesdrawnfromyourownobservationsorexperience Inthefollowingparagraph thewritermentionsherownexperiencenottocomplainaboutapersonalproblembuttoillustrateherargument Proposal ThecollegeWritingCentershouldbeopenintheeveningaswellasduringtheday Formanystudents eveningistheonlytimetheyarefreetovisittheWritingCenter Myschedule Ithink isatypicalone Iaminclassesfromeightthroughtwelveeverymorning andthenImustdashofftowork whichkeepsmebusyuntilsix Somestudents suchasmysister keepanoppositeschedule workinthemorning classesintheafternoon andthey too areunabletovisitthecenterduringitscurrentoperatinghours OpeningtheWritingCenterintheeveningwouldbenefitmanyofthestudentswhoholdpart timejobs Althoughoneortwoexamplessuchuswehaveheredonotnecessarilyproveanargument theycanhelptodemonstrateandclarifyapoint Themoresepcificyourfactsandexamplesare themoreconvincingyourargumentislikelytobe Inadditiontobeingspecific thesupportyouprovideineachparagraphshouldbeaccurateandclearlyrelatedtoyourproposal Contention ThatCapitalPunishmentShouldbeAbolishedfromOurTime Itisneverrighttodowrongortorequitewrongwithwrong orwhenwesuffereviltodefendourselvesbydoingevilinreturn Socrates Capitalpunishmentisapracticeofgreatantiquityandobscureorigin InthebenightedMiddleAges itsusage alongwithpaganritualandhumansacrifice wasrampant However intoday s ageofreason wheremosterroneousideasandarchaicpracticeshavefoundtheirgraves capitalpunishment beingoneofthelastvestigesoftheunenlightenedpast too shouldbeabolished Activity Anargumentneedstobecontrolledifyouintendtobeconvincing Chooseanissueaboutwhichyoufeelstrongly guncontrol abortionorsimplyschooluniforms Beginyourcommentarybydetailingthehistoricalbasisforyourargument ItmaynothavetheantiquityofSocratesbutyouwilladdweighttoyourargumentwithawellresearchedbeginning Nooneofsensibilitycanargueforthebarbarityofcapitalpunishment Hanging auniversalformofexecution callouslyinflictsuponthevictim aslowandtorturousdeathbysuffocation Electrocutionisworsestill Imagine ifyoucan thecondemnedsoul slastagonisingmomentsasjoltsofelectricitysurgethroughhisbody thetorsoconvulsingspasmodically eyesbulgingandanoverpoweringstenchofburntflesh alongwiththesmoke emanatingfromhisbody Mercifully wewillneverknow Evenlethalinjection thesocalledhumaneexecutionadministeredtoKarlaTucker offersnoguaranteedhumanenessandefficacy TheU S CourtofAppealsfindssubstantialevidence evenaslighterrorindosageleavesavictimconsciousbutparalysedwhiledying asentientwitnessofhisownasphyxiation Indeed nomatterhowcarefullythemethodisconcealedunderaveneerofdecency theverybarbarousnatureofcapitalpunishmentisunchanged Itisnothingbutpremeditatedandcold bloodedmurdermadeexcusablebylaw Whyshouldwekeepsuchbarbarity Activity Argumentativetechniquesneednotnecessarilybesubtlebuttheyareeffective Thisparagraphalienatesthosewhodon tagreebysayingnooneofsensibility orbydescribingtheeffectsofcapitalpunishmentingraphicdetail Quoteshavealsobeenusedtogivesubstancetothepiece Chooseacaseyouwanttoargueandtrythesetechniquesinyourownpieceofwriting graphicdescription alienationorquotes TheDeathLobbyfeeblyarguesthatcapitalpunishmentisadeterrentforwould becriminals Factsstateotherwise ResearchindicatesthatAmerica theonlywesternnationwithdeathpenalties hasthehighestcrimerates ItsdeathpenaltyStateshavehomicideratesof7 5per100 000whileitsabolitionStatesonly6 4per100 000 Clearly thefiguressuggestthatcapitalpunishmentdoesnotdetercrime Whyisthisso Thelogicbehindthisissimple Untilrecenttimes capitalpunishment initsmyriadalteregossuchasbeheading drowningandstoning tookplaceinpublic whereitsgrimnessandthevictim slastagonieswerewarningstoallonlookers Unfortunately theseexecutions thoughdeterrentinintention becameinpracticeadegradingformofpopularentertainment appealingtomorbid aberrantimpulsesandgivinganoutletforsadisticurges Sincetheexecutionsarenolongerpublic howthencantheybeexemplary Infact thewholedeterrencetheoryisanoxymoron forwhentheStatesanctionsandceremoniouslykills itlendssupporttothedarksideofhumannature Howcanitdetercrimeifitselfisanexampleofinherentevil Activity Toconvincethereaderyoushouldacknowledgetheopposition spointofview Noticehowithasbeenstatedbutrebuttedinthisparagraph Beforeyouwriteyourownargument makealistofalltheopposingpointsofview Writeaparagraphthatsummarisestheseopposingideasbutdebunksthematthesametime TheBible scommandmentthoushaltnotkill explicitlyprohibitscapitalpunishment Infact Jesuspreachesloveforallmen regardlessofworthinessormeritofactions OnlyGodhasthepowertopassjudgementonmen EvenouromnipotentLord injudgingCain thegreatlywronged showedclemencyinwithholdingthedeathsentence Canwe meremortals affordtoplayGodandtakelives No ofcoursenot butthecontinuedpracticeofcapitalpunishmentdoesexactlythis Activity Itisveryhardtoargueagainstanauthority Inthisparagraphtheultimateauthorityhasbeenappealedto Chooseanauthoritythatwilladdcredencetoyourcaseandfootnotetheircontributiontoyourargument Notonlyhascapitalpunishmentkilled ithasoftendonesoerroneously Thebleakestfactofallisthatsomeofthevictimskilledwereinnocent TheAmericanStatutespermitexecutionswhenbeyondreasonabledoubt Whatgoodisreasonabledoubt Inthiscentury theU S alonehasexecutedastaggering23peoplewhohave later allbeenfoundinnocent Thesearenotmerefigures theyareinnocentmenunjustlymurdered Howcananycivilisedsocietyacceptthis Thechancesofperjuredtestimoniesandhumanerrorsaresimplytoogreat Incapitalpunishment unlikeothersentences amiscarriageofjusticeleavesanirreversibleerror aninnocentbutverydeadbody Isn tthisreasonenoughfortheabolitionofdeathpenalties Wherehumanlivesareconcerned wesimplycannotacceptanymarginforerror Asfortheargumentthatcapitalpunishmentpreventsrecidivism itcertainlydoes Itkillstheoffender Isthisnecessary Shouldwe livinginanenlightenedage shouldrespondcompassionatelytocrime AsG B Shawnoted murderandcapitalpunishmentarenotoppositesthatcancel butsimilaritiesthatbreedtheirkind Inpreventingre offences analternativesuchaslifesentenceissufficient it unlikecapitalpunishment offersachanceforrepentanceandrehabilitation Shouldn tthisbetheultimategoalofallpenalcodes Lawandordercanexistwithoutcapitalpunishment whyhavethisunnecessaryactofhateandvengeance Clearly capitalpunishmentisarelicofbygonetimes Nocivilisedsocietytodaywouldallowsuchbarbaricliquidationofhumanlifetocontinueunchallenged Evilisneitherredeemednordeterredbyevil Lawandorderisneverupheldthroughlegalisedmurder Wemustremovethisevilfromourtime Activity Constructyourownargumentonanyissuebutstructureitcarefully Placeparticularemphasisontheopeningwhereyouwillintroduceyourcase thebodyoftheargumentwhereyourefutetheopposingviewsandsubstantiateyourargumentusingappealstoauthorityandwellresearchedargumentandthenconcludebystatingyourargumentdirectly Figuresofspeech SimileHewaslikeacockwhothoughtthesunhadrisentohearhimcrow Myroommatesstoodthereasmotionlessasstatues Hehadgivenmetheimpressionofabsoluterigidity asthoughhehadswallowedapoker Hisshoulderswerebentasthoughunderaweight Awordandastoneletgocannotberecalled Hemighthavewonthegoldmedalthewayhebehaves Theyworkedlaboriouslyandperseveringlythewayantsgnawatabone Ambitionistolifejustwhatsteamistothelocomotive Whatsculptureistoablockofmarble educationistothesoul Youmightaswellkillyourtimeasspendituponhislecture Wordscannotbememorizedwithoutbeingusedanymorethanmoneykeptwithoutbeingputtouse MetaphorHappinessisaperfumeyoucannotpouronotherswithoutafewdropsonyourself Ihavegotoneof