语言学重点.doc

1. What are the designed features of Language？Language is uniquely human, distinguishes us so clearly from animals. A, Arbitrariness 约定俗成性，任意性。Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning;Arbitrariness at the syntactic Arbitrariness and convention B，duality 双重性Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaningC，creativityLanguage is productive in the sense that speakers of a language can produce and understand utterances that they have never heard before.D，displacement 移位性Human language can communicate about things that are absent as easily as about things that are present.E，Cultural Transmission 文化传递性This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learnt by each speaker. But if the human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. 2.Phonetics and Phonology语音学和音位学Phonetics studies speech sounds,including the production of speech,that is,how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received,the description and classification of speech sounds,words and connected speech.Cognition：“认识”和“认知”英汉词典“认识”指客观事体及其规律在人脑中的反映。感+理辞海（1989,1999）：认知就是认识，指人类认识客观事物、获得知识的活动，包括知觉、记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题解决等过程。现代汉语词典（第5版）：通过思维活动认识、了解。动觉图式和基本范畴：通过人的身体与客观外界互动而产生的，可被直接理解，其他概念和范畴则主要是通过隐喻认知机制而被简洁认知的。认知语言学的核心原则：语言也是一种认知活动，是对客观世界进行互动体验和认知加工的结果。2. What is Iconicity象似性？How to analyze some language phenomena with Iconicity?语言符号象似于人们的认知方式，且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界，语符形式在音、形或结构上与其所表达的意义之间存在映照相似的现象。该描写不仅反映了象似性具有普遍性，存在于语言的不同层面，而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用的系统研究线索。音义象似 形义象似 距离象似性 数量象似性 顺序象似性距离象似性The linguistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.（词句中语符之间的距离象似于它们所表示的概念距离。）ex: help sb do sth /help sb to de sth 顺序象似性语言单位排列顺序象似于时间顺序和文化观念Jacobson (1965) ：The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events, as in “I came, I saw, I conquered.”(3. What is prototype theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with prototype theory?原型理论，（范畴，即划分类别。男人/女人,好/一般/差）杯子4. What is figure and ground theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with figure and ground theory?语言的突显观认为，语言结构中信息的选择与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。如：The car crashed into the tree. The tree was hit by the car.台上坐着主席团。 主席团坐在台上。 笑声充满晚会。 晚会充满笑声。 The picture is above the blackboard. The blackboard is below the picture.5. How to analyze some language phenomena with Metaphor and Metonymy?6. What is Speech Act theory? What is Illocutionary Act? What is Cooperative Principle?言语行为理论 是英国约翰兰素奥斯汀1955年提出的。他认为：为了传递信息，人们需要使用话语，但话语并非都是为了传递字面意义或表达话语本身的语义信息，在很多时候说话人都是在“通过言辞行事”（doing things with words）。比如，实施许诺、发出警告或威胁、表示请求、表达命令、进行批评等。 在一定的语境条件下通过话语实施的行为，被称为“言语行为”（speech acts），是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。Performatives and constatives 施为句和表述句I apologize；I declare the meeting openLocutionary act （发话行为）Illocutionary act（行事行为我们说话时，不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位，而且说明我们的说话目的，我们希望怎样被理解，也就是Austin说的具有一定的语力（force）。我们可以说“Morning！”有问候的语力，或者说，它应该被理解成问候。语力，或者叫行事语力（illocutionary force），像但与说话者意义、语境意义或附加意义，可以译成汉语的“言外之意”。Perlocutionary act（取效行为） 说话可以看成做事的第三种意义，涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通过告诉听话人某事，说话人可以改变听话人对某件事的观点，或者误导他，让他惊奇，诱导他做某事，等等。不管这些效果是否符合说话人的本意，它们都可以看作说话人行为的一部分。“合作原则”的内容是：说人们在会话过程中头脑里会尽量保持某些标准，从而在遵循这些标准的基础上使交流顺利进行。 “合作”的概念是：会话参与者尽管是分别提供自己的话语，但总是在一定程度上意识到其中的某一些目的，至少是一个互相都能接受的话语发展方向；这一些目的或方向的达成可以说是在会话过程中共同维护和坚持当前的目的和方向形成的默契，也可以说是是会话参与者在交流过程中共同合作努力地结果。格赖斯把合作原则具体分析成数量、质量、关系、方式四条准则：数量准则，指的是信息量要恰如其分，不多不少。质量准则，指的是说话要真实，要有根据。关系准则，指的是话语之间要有关联。方式准则，指的是说话要清楚，有条理，不要有歧义，不要罗嗦。What is pragmatics?语用学，即研究语言使用的学科。 语用学，研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 语用学，研究话语在使用中的语境意义，或话语在特定语境条件下的交际意义，特别研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何准确地理解语言和恰当地运用语言。What is the relation between pragmatics and semantics?语义学与语用学的联系和区别： 二者都是对意义的研究，但它们是在两个不同的层面上对意义进行的研究：语义学是对抽象语言能力的研究，语用学是对言语行为（即通过言语实施的行为，是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用）的研究。二者之间的差别大体上就是意义和用法之间的差别。然而不应该忘记言语行为是语言能力的具体体现。 因此我们赞成利奇采用的观点：“语义学和语用学是互不相同但又互相补充的研究领域。”句子：是一个句法学、语义学的概念，是脱离语境条件的抽象的单位，多用于指抽象的语法结构或脱离语境条件的结构组合，也就是说,它是按照一定的语法规则组合起来的、具有意义的语言单位，其意义就是词汇意义和语法意义的组合，在任何条件下它的意义都是恒定的。 话语：是一个语用学概念，话语就是特定语境条件中所使用的句子、词或词语，体现的是特定的语境意义。 Sense relation: A word which is related to other words in sense within a language system itself. 词与词之间不同的涵义关系Sense Relation ：Polysemy Homonymy Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Polysemy (一词多义) ：is the common feature peculiar to all natural languages. Homonymy: The words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Synonymy （同义关系）: words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.Antonymy （反义关系）: as words which are opposite in meaning. Complementaries Types of antonyms Contraries ConversesEntailment 蕴涵关系：Entailment is an important sense relation or logical relation between sentences. a. John killed Bill. b. Bill died. a. I saw a boy. b. I saw a child.(3) a. John is a bachelor. b. John is an unmarried.Presupposition 预设下句为上句的预设。 甲：当今法国国王是个秃子。 乙：当今法国有位国王。Componential Analysis(语义成分分析)：by breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components , digging them out and classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis. G . Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1. Conceptual meaning 概念意义2. Connotative meaning 内涵意义3. Social meaning 社会意义4. Affective meaning 感情意义5. Reflected meaning 反射意义6. Collocative meaning 搭配意义7. Thematic meaning 主题意义Ogden & Richards(1923): Semantic Triangle (Triangle of Significance) P36 Concept(Sense) 概念（涵义） -word (symbol) thing (referent) 符号形式 指称对象What is Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis? The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体） and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC. To show how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.Syntax: It studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. In short: It studies the formation of sentences. Word: is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning. Closed class words （封闭类词） Open-class words （开放类词） 1) Closed words : their membership is fixed or limited. E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc. 2) Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. e.g. n. v. adj. adv. E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite ofRoot（词根） : is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Stem（词干）: may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes（词缀）: are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Free Morphemes: independent of other plete meaning; used as free grammatical units in sentencesman, earth, wind, car, angerBound Morphemes粘着词素: cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided.An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.1）Phone（音素）: a phonetic unit, the smallest part of phonetics. p t k heg. tip; pit; spit 语音属于言语2） Phone