EnglishLinguistics(revisedversion)

ACourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish FengYujuanSchoolofForeignLanguage SWUN 1 GeneralIntroduction2 Phoneticsandphonology3 Morphology4 Syntax5 Semantics6 Pragmatics7 Languageandsociety sociallinguistics 8 Languageandculture cross culturalcommunication 9 FirstandSecondlanguageacquisition10 PsycholinguisticsandNeurolinguistics11 Computationalandstatisticlinguistics12 Moderntheoriesandschooloflinguistics TheGoalsforthisCourse Togetascientificviewonlanguage Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteachingToprepareforthefutureresearchwork TheRequirementsforthiscourse ClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination ReferenceBooks 戴炜栋 何兆熊 2002 新编简明英语语言学教程 上海外语教育出版社 胡壮麟 2001 语言学教程 北京大学出版社 胡壮麟 姜望琪 2002 语言学高级教程 北京大学出版社刘润清 1995 西方语言学流派 外语教学与研究出版社 丁言仁 MauriceCoganHauck 2001 英语语言学纲要 上海外语教育出版社H G Widdowson 2000 linguistics ShanghaiForeignEducationPress Chapter1GeneralIntroduction Whatislanguage whatapersonsays e g badlanguage expressions thewayofspeakingorwriting e g Shakespeare slanguage Luxun slanguage aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting e g languageforspecialpurpose colloquiallanguage theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech writingbehaviorofacommunity e g Chineselanguage firstlanguage thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages e g Hestudieslanguage atoolforhumancommunication socialfunction Sapir sdefinition 1921 Languageisapurelyhumanandnon instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols WhoisSapir AmericananthropologistandlinguistEdwardSapirSapir Whorfhypothesis peopledonoperceivetheworldfreelybutratherdosothroughlanguage whichwilldistorttherealityandthusinfluenceandcontroltheirthought LINGUISTICDETERMINISM LINGUISTICRELATIVITY Hall sdefinition 1968 Languageis theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral auditoryarbitrarysymbols Chomsky sdefinition 1957 FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof finiteorinfinite sentences eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements WhoisChomsky ChomskyisstronglyagainstBloomfield sbehavioristpsychologyandempiricismandadoptscognitivepsychologyandrationalism Hebelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate otherwisethereareimportantfactsthatcanneverbeadequatelyexplained TGGrammar Languagecanbegenerallydefinedas asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication Languageisasystem Systematic rule governed elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules can tbecombinedatwill e g bkli Iappleeat Languageisarbitrary Arbitrary nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes e g pen byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith Languageissymbolicinnature Symbolic wordsareassociatedwithobjects actionsideasbyconvention Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet Shakespeare Languageisprimarilyvocal Vocal theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform Languageishuman specific Human specific differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess e g birdsongs beedance animalcries Thedesign definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage CharlesHockett ArbitrarinessProductivity CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionInterchangeability Arbitrariness Nological motivatedorintrinsic connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings Onomatopoeicwords whichimitatenaturalsounds aresomewhatmotivated English rumble crackle bang Chinese putong shasha dingdang Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary e g type writer shoe maker air conditioner photocopy Duality doublearticulation Lowerlevel sounds meaningless Higherlevel meaning largerunitsofmeaning Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning words andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences wemakedictionaryofalanguage butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage Productivity creativity Peculiartohumanlanguages usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore e g wecanunderstandsentencelike Ared eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld 095 096Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance beesdonot talk aboutthemselves thehives orwind letaloneaboutpeople animals hopesordesires Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings whicharenotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast presentorfuture orinfar awayplaces Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear Culturaltransmission Languageisculturallytransmitted throughteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted Allcats gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats gibbonsandbees AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted Thatis itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Thestoryofawolfchild apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage Interchangeability anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages 091 092093 094 Functionsoflanguage Phatic establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact Directive getthehearertodosomething Informative giveinformationaboutfacts Interrogative getinformationfromothers Expressive expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker Evocative createcertainfeelingsinthehearer amuse startle soothe worryorplease Performative languageisusedtodothings toperformactions Theoriginoflanguage Thedivine origintheory LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind Babel Theinventiontheory imitative criesofnature thegruntsofmenworkingtogether Theevolutionarytheory theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment 2 Whatislinguistics Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies Exhaustiveness adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity Exhaustiveness adequacy thelinguistshouldfatherallthematerialrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation Consistency thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement Economy otherthingsbeingequal ashorterstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongerormoreinvolvedone Objectivity alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdata allowingnoprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralization Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics TheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics Phonetics phoneticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription classificationandtranscription articulatoryphonetics thestudyofthespeechorgansandhowtheymovetoproducespeechsound acousticphonetics thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsound auditoryphonetics thestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear Phonology phonologyisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages Itidentifiesthesetofspeechsoundsforeachlanguage howtheyarearrangedtoformmeaningfulunits andthefunctionofeachsound Morphology morphologyisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords Itidentifiesthesmallestmeaningfulunitsinalanguagewhicharecalledmorphemesandlooksintothewaysthemorphemesarearrangedtoformwords freemorpheme boundmorpheme Syntax syntaxisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences Semantics semanticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage Pragmatics pragmaticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudieslanguageincontextandlinguisticcommunication Thecontextofsituationinwhichasentenceisusedcontributesalottoitsmeaning meaningthatcannotbeaccountedforinpuresemanticanalysis Inthissense pragmaticscanbedefinedbythisformula PRAGMATICS MEANING SEMANTICS Sociolinguistics sociolinguisticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsociety suchassocialbackground socialnorms socialchanges etc Psycholinguistics psycholinguisticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandpsychology Appliedlinguistics findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics Speechvswriting Speech primarymediumoflanguageWriting laterdeveloped Descriptivevsprescriptive Descriptive describe analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse modernlinguistic Prescriptive laydownrulesfor correct linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage traditionalgrammar Synchronicvsdiachronic Synchronicstudy descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime modernlinguistics Diachronicstudy descriptionofalanguagethroughtime historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime Languevsparole F deSaussure Langue theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity Parole therealizationoflangueinactualuse Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions Competenceandperformance Chomsky Competence theidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual LinguisticpotentialandLinguisticbehavior Halliday Thelinguisticcompetenceversusperformancedistinctionisonebetweenwhataperson know andwhathe does Whilethelinguisticpotentialversusactuallinguisticbehaviordistinctionisonebetweenwhataperson cando andwhataperson does Chapter2sociolinguistics 1 Sociolinguistics languageandsociety1 1WhatisSociolinguistics Asub fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive 1 2Whataredialectandaccentrespectively Dialectrefers strictlyspeaking todifferencebetweenkindsoflanguagewhichhavedifferencesofvocabularyandgrammaraswellaspronunciation 095 096Accentreferssolelytodifferencesofpronunciation 1 3Whatisstandarddialect Standarddialectisthevarietyoflanguagewhichusuallyusedinprint normallytaughtinschoolandtonon nativespeakerslearningalanguage Itisalsothevarietywhichisnormallyspokenbyeducatedpeopleandusedinnewsbroadcastsandothersimilarsituations 093 094StandardEnglish dialect RP receivedpronunciation Takethepronunciationofnon prevocalic r inBritishdialectasanexample ratrichcarrysorrycartcar thesewordsformerlyhadan r sound asthespellingshows butintheseaccents r hasbeenlostexceptwhereitoccursbeforeavowel Thus the r soundsattheendofwords car orbeforeaconsonant cart canbereferredtoas non prevocalic r Table Attitudestowardstheuseofnon prevocalic r uppermiddleclassinNewYorkCityAge r used8 194820 393440 9091 092 2languagevarieties 2 1varietiesoflanguageinfluencedbysocialfactors2 1 1LanguageandSocialClass sociolect speakerAspeakerBIdoneityesterday Ididityesterday Heain tgotitHehasn tgotitItwasherwhatsaiditItwasherthatsaidit Whathappensifwewishtonegatethefollowingsentence Icaneatanything TherearetwopossibilitiesinthestandardvarietyofEnglish Ican teatanything Icaneatnothing ThereareothervarietiesofEnglish wherethereisathirdpossibility wherewecannegatebothelements Ican teatnothing AsurveywastakeninDetroit anditwasfoundthattherewasaclearrelationshipbetweenemploymentofdoublenegationandsocialclass UMC 2LMC 11UWC 38LWC 70 2 1 2LanguageandEthnicGroup ethnicdialect Ethnic groupdifferencesmaybecorrelatedwithphonologicalorgrammaticalfeatures aswellasorinsteadofwithlexicaldifferences AnexampleofBVE BlackVernacularEnglish Afifteen yearoldblackboy Youknow likesomepeoplesayifyou regoodyourspiritgoin t heaven n ifyoubad yourspiritgoin tohell Well bullshit Yourspiritgoin tohellanyway I lltellyouwhy Cause yousee doesn nobodyreallyknowthatit saGod An whentheybesayin ifyougood yougoin t heaven tha sbullshit causeyouain tgoin tonoheaven causeitain tnoheavenforyoutogoto ContrastbetweenBVEandstandardEnglish 1 Allthewhitechildrenstudiedusedsome sintheappropriateverbforms andtheaveragescoreforthegroupasawholewas85percent susage Ontheotherhand only76percentoftheblackchildrenusedany s andtheoverallaveragescorefor susagewasonly13percent 2 theabsenceorinvarianceoftheverb tobe BVEStandardEnglishHebusyrightnow He sbusyrightnow Sometimeshebebusy Sometimeshe sbusy 3 questioninversioninBVEA IaskedMarywheredidshego B IaskedMarywhereshewent A Itain theavenforyoutogoto B ThereisnoheavenforyoutogotoA Can tnobodydonothingaboutit B Nobodycandoanythingaboutit 2 1 3LanguageandgenderItisknownfromlinguisticresearchthatinmanysocietiesthespeechofmenandwomendiffers InSouthAfrica researchhasbeencarriedout comparingthespeechofmaleandfemalehigh schoolpupilsofthesameageinthesametown boy b I bUI boys042girls150 Theboys aswecansee aremorelikelythangirlstousenon standardlocalpronunciations Why Firstly womeninoursocietyaremorestatus consciousthanmen e g 不爽Secondly toughness isquitewidelyconsideredtobeadesirablemasculinecharacteristic e g 老子Todrawaconclusion menandwomenaresociallydifferentinthatsocietylaydowndifferentsocialrolesforthemandexpectsdifferentbehaviorpatternsfromthem Languagesimplyreflectsthissocialfact 2 1 4LanguageandContextLanguagebehaviordoesnotonlyhavetobeappropriatetotheindividual italsoneedstobesuitableforparticularoccasionsandsituations Languageusedondifferentoccasionsdiffersinthedegreeofformality whichisdeterminedbythesocialvariables e g whowearetalkingwithandwhatwearetalkingabout moreformallessformaloffspringchildrendeceasedieperusereadreplyanswerparticipateintakepartinencountercomeacrosstolerateputupwith comparethedegreeofformalityinthefollowingpairs 1a Irequireyourattendancetobepunctual 1b Iwantyoutocomeontime2a Fatherwassomewhatfatiguedafterhislengthyjourney 2b Dadwasprettytiredafterhislongtrip 3a Anotinconsiderableamountoftimewasexpectedonthetask 3b Thejobtookalongtime 2 2register095 096Languagevarietiesthatarelinkedtotheuse suchasoccupations professionsortopics havebeentermsregisters Theregisteroflaw forexample isdifferentfromregisterofmedicineorengineering Registersareusuallycharacterizedsolelybyvocabularydifference eitherbytheuseofparticularwords orbytheuseofwordsinparticularsense e g Electricityisaphysicalphenomenonarisingfromthebehaviorofelectronsandprotonsthatiscausedbytheattractionofparticleswithoppositechargesandtherepulsionofparticleswiththesamecharge PleasemakesurethatthestipulationsintherelevantL CconfirmexactlywiththetermsstatedinourS Csoastoavoidsubsequentamendments 2 3linguafranca pidginandCreoleAlinguafrancaisalanguagewhichisusedasameansofcommunicationamongpeoplewhohavenonativelanguageincommon e g EnglishorFrench Apidginlanguageisasimplifiedlinguafrancawhichhavenonativespeakers Itmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposes ACreoleisanenrichedformofpidgin Ithasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunity e g theEnglish basedCreoleofJamaica theFrench basedCreoleofHaiti 2 4BilingualismanddiglossiaInsomespeechcommunities twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism 093 094AccordingtoFerguson 1959 diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay Chapter3Phonetics Phonology 1 Phonetics1 1WhatisPhonetics Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription classificationandtranscriptionPhoneticscanbefurtherdividedintothefollowingthreesub branches Articulatoryphonetics fromthespeakers pointofview howspeakersproducespeechsounds Auditoryphonetics fromthehearers pointofview howsoundsareperceived Acousticphonetics fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother 1 2OrgansofspeechThearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas 1 Pharyngealcavity 咽腔 thethroat 2 Theoralcavity 口腔 themouth 3 Nasalcavity 鼻腔 thenose Anveryimportantarticulatorydistinctioninpharyngealcavity voicedvs voiceless Voicing thevibrationofvocalcords isasoundfeaturesharedbyallvowelsandsomeconsonants 091 092 Thediagramofspeechorgans LipsTeethTeethridge alveolar 齿龈 Hardpalate 硬腭 Softpalate velum 软腭 Uvula 小舌 TipoftongueBladeoftongue 舌页 BackoftongueVocalcords 声带 Pharyngealcavity 咽腔 Nasalcavity 鼻腔 1 3broadandnarrowtranscriptionIPA InternationalPhoneticAlphabet Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound Broadtranscription usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose withoutdiacritics e g p Narrowtranscription usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy withdiacritics e g dark aspirated ph Anotherarticulatorydistinction aspiratedvs unaspirated 1 4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsEnglishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories Vowels ConsonantsTheessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat thenoseorthemouth whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed DanielJones 1 4 1ClassificationofconsonantsEnglishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions 1 Themannerofarticulation2 Theplaceofarticulation Intermsofthemannerofarticulation theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingcategories stops plosives fricatives affricates liquids nasals glides semivowels Intermsoftheplaceofarticulation theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingcategories bilabial labiodental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal Theplaceofarticulation Bilabial Labiodental Dentalorinterdental Alveolar Palatoalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants 1 4 2ClassificationofvowelsEnglishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecat