语言学教程Chapter 4. From Word to Textppt课件

1,.,ChapterFourFromWordtoText,.,2,Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.,.,3,Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds:relationsofpositionrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurrence,1.Syntacticrelations,syntacticrelations,.,4,1.1RelationsofPosition,Forlanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2SubjectObject,.,5,Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample,.,6,Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacher,.,7,PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.,.,8,Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.,.,9,1.2RelationofSubstitutability,TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.The_smiles.manboygirl,.,10,Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.strongmanThetallestboysmiles.prettygirlyesterday.Hewenttherelastweek.thedaybefore.,.,11,ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.,.,12,1.3RelationofCo-occurrence,Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.,.,13,Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.,.,14,2.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents,2.1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanapple,.,15,2.2ConstituentsandPhraseStructure,Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:thegirl(NP)atetheapple(VP)thegirlatetheapple(S),.,16,ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis),Thegirlatetheapple,.,17,PhraseStructureTreediagram,SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple,.,18,.,19,Bracketing,Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)SNPDetTheNgirlVPVateNPDettheNapple,.,20,2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstructions,Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.,.,21,.,22,Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincludingthebasicsentence,theprepositionalphrase,thepredicate(verb+object)construction,andtheconnective(be+complement)construction.,.,23,Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.),.,24,2.4CoordinationandSubordination,Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:,CoordinationSubordination,.,25,Coordination,CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.,.,26,CoordinationofNPs:NPtheladyorNPthetigerCoordinationofVPs:VPgotothelibraryandVPreadabookCoordinationofPPs:PPdownthestairsandPPoutthedoorCoordinationofAPs:APquiteexpensiveandAPverybeautifulCoordinationofSs:SJohnlovesMaryandSMarylovesJohntoo.,.,27,Subordination,Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.,.,28,twodogsHead(Mybrother)candrink(wine).HeadSwimminginthelake(isfun).Head(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.Head,.,29,Subordinateclauses,Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:complementclausesadjunct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclauses,.,30,JohnbelievesthattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman.(complementclause)ElizabethopenedherpresentsbeforeJohnfinishedhisdinner.(adverbialclause)ThewomanthatIloveismovingtothesouth.(relativeclause),subordinateclause,.,31,3.SyntacticFunction,Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.,.,32,3.1Subject,Insomelanguages,subjectreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.ThetypicalexamplecanbefoundinLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase,suchaspaterandfiliusinthefollowingexamples.paterfiliumamat(thefatherlovestheson)patrumfiliusamat(thesonlovesthefather),.,33,InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent,orthedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:MaryslappedJohn.AdogbitBill.,.,34,butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:Johnwasbittenbyadog.Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery.Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms“grammaticalsubject”(John)and“logicalsubject”(adog).,.,35,Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis“whatthesentenceisabout”(i.e.,topic).Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences,suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow.butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdonttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldnttakehispromisesveryseriously.,.,36,Allthreesentencesseemtobe“about”Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?,subject,.,37,Wordorder,Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.,.,38,Pro-forms,ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.,.,39,Agreementwiththeverb,Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.Sheangersthem.,.,40,Contentquestions,Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishcouncil?,.,41,WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealtheQueenspicturefrom?,Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword,anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject.,.,42,Tagquestion,Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.JohnlovesMary,doesnthe?MarylovesJohn,doesntshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesntshe?,.,43,3.2Predicate,Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboyisrunning.(process)Peterbroketheglass.(action)Janemustbemad!(state)Thewordpredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.,.,44,3.3Object,Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.Motherboughtadoll.Mothergavemysisteradoll.IODO,.,45,Insomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels:theaccusativecasefordirectobject,andthedativecaseforindirectobject.InEnglish,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).Mothergaveadolltomysister.Johnkickedme.,.,46,Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroketheglass.TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.PetersawJane.JanewasseenbyPeter.,object,.,47,Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.Hediedlastweek.Thematchlastedthreehours.HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester.),.,48,4.Category,Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice,.,49,4.1Number,Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.,.,50,Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses),.,51,4.2Gender,Suchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.Forinstance,inLatin,ignisfireismasculine,whileflammaflameisfeminine.,.,52,Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoress,.,53,InFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.beaucadeau(finegift)bellemaison(finehouse)Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouseisbeautiful.),.,54,Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:lepoele(thestove)lapoele(thefryingpan)lependule(thependulum)lapendule(theclock),.,55,4.3Case,Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.,.,56,InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher:teacherswith:toamanJohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn,.,57,4.4Agreement,Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).,.,58,Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,Whoseisthispen?-Oh,itstheoneIlost.oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin.,.,59,Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:Thismanruns.Thebirdflies.Thesemenrun.Thesebirdsfly.,.,60,SentenceClausePhraseWord,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,.,61,thethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult(adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast(adverbialphrase),phrase,.,62,.,63,Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly.Itsgreatforamantobefree.Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.Itsnousecryingoverspiltmilk.Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow?,.,64,Sentence:traditionalapproach,simpleSentencecomplexnon-simplecompound,.,65,Sentence:functionalapproach,Yes/noInterrogativeIndicativewh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptative,.,66,Basicsentencetypes:Bolinger,Motherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal),.,67,Basicsentencetypes:Quirk,SVCMaryiskind.anurse.SVAMhehouse.SVThechildislaughing.SVOSomebodycaughttheball.SVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong.afool.SVOAIputtheplateonthetable.SVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents.,.,68,6.Recursiveness,Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences.Howlongcanasentencebe?,.,69,Theoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses.Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew,.,70,JohnssisterJohnssistershusbandJohnssistershusbandsuncleJohnssistershusbandsunclesdaughter,etc.thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing,.,71,6.1Conjoining,Conjoining:coordination.Conjunctions:and,but,andor.Johnboughtahatand