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chapter 4Deep structure deviationrefers to semantic deviation. It is linguistic effect, which involves something odd in meaning of a linguistic unit, i.e. a word or a phrase.Contradiction（矛盾） A type of semantic deviation which conveys self-conflicting information。Oxymoron（矛盾修饰法、逆喻，如cruel kindness）Oxymoron refers to the yoking（结合） together of two expressions that are not compatible（可以并存的、相容的） in the normal sense, so that in combination they have no conceivable（可想到的、可相信的） literal reference in reality.Examples: as the wretched creature mumbled and chuckled in her hideous merriment, the undertaker turned to go away.(Oliver Twist)Analysis: The surface contradiction of the two words hideousand merriment aptly shows the extent of the old womans idiocy.Paradox：似是而非的隽语a statement陈述 which is absurd荒谬的 because it self-evidently false, a seemingly contradictory statement that nonetheless may be true.Examples: it was a bright, cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.Analysis: the second clause of the sentence is a statement that is extremely absurd for in reality no clock strikes beyond twelve. Through the use of the paradox, Orwell seems to hint that the whole story will be absurd.Transference转移: As a literary practice it refers to the use of language which leads peoples comprehension理解 to the figurative 形象的plane.标准、水平 Synecdoche提喻法: the figure of speech that uses a part to refer to the whole, or to use a particular thing of a kind to refer to the whole species or kind or vice versa.Return to her?No, rather I abjure all roofs and chooseTo be a comrade with the wolf and owl. Shakespeare, the taming of the shrewHere, roofs refer to whole houses or buildings.Metonymy:a type of transference, which involves substitution of an attribute of a certain thing for the whole rather than the substitution relationship between the part and the whole.Example：“the kettle boils”refers to “the water in the kettle boils”Sometimes, the idea would have been expressed mush less effectively, if metonyms had not been used.Metaphor:The way of talking about one thing by means of or in terms of another thing on the basis of a certain similarity between these two.A way of describing something by saying it has the qualities of something else, it compares things without using the words “as” or “like”The sunshine of her smileWhat a toad that man is!Make the language more vividly.Similarity is the foundation of metaphor. The similarity in between connects the cognition of these two things.Deception:Deception is not really the use of language to deceive but to achieve a better effect of communicating. It misrepresents the truth in some way.Overstatement /hyperboleOverstatement distorts the truth by great exaggeration.Example:For she was beautiful-her beauty made the bright world dim, and everything beside seemed like the fleeting image of a shade. (Shelley)Express the extraordinarily features.UnderstatementMisrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it.The face wasnt a bad one, it had what they called charm.To express an ordinary feeling by using a simple and delight way.Irony: it takes the form of saying the opposite of what one feels to be the case.“oh, well done! ” she said with irony.Achieve emphasis.Ambiguity:The case of more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language.When I am dead, I hope it may be said his sins were scarlet, but his books are read.Make the statement has several ambiguities.Chapter 5Phonological Overregularity 音位的过分规约Phonological overregularity is characteristic of literature, especially poetry. It consists of two aspects, namely phonemic patterning音位模式 and rhythmic patterning.节奏模式5.1 Phonemic PatterningIn English, phonemes音素、音位 may be patterned in different ways. The most important types of patterning in English literature are: alliteration, rhyme, assonance, consonance and onomatopoeia. Now let us discuss each respectively.5.1.1 Alliteration押头韵 头韵是指一行（节）诗中，几个词开头的辅音相同，形成押韵。Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. 例如：last but not least, now or never, safe and sound and speech is silver, silence is golden. Alliteration is also a feature of tongue twisters, e.g. (1) A tutor who tooted a flute、Tried to tutor two tutors to toot、Said the two to the tutor Is it harder to toot or To tutor two tutors to toot? (Anonymous) 作用Tongue twisters such as the one above can create humorous effects and may be used to practice certain sounds. (4) Freedom is not given free to any who ask, liberty is not born of the Gods. She is a child of the people, born in the very height and heat of battle. In (4), the alliteration calls attention to the words heat and height which carry the alliteration, thus giving great emphasis to these words. What the writer is trying to say here is that only through hard and intense struggle can freedom and liberty be won.看教材，了解更多例子中头韵的作用分析 5.1.2 Rhyme Rhyme is defined as identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.尾韵（end rhyme）指行尾押韵单词最后的重读元音及其后面的辅音在读音上相同，而元音前面的辅音则不能相同。也就是说，元音以及元音后面的辅音押韵，而元音前面的辅音则不押韵。这种韵又被称为全韵（perfect rhyme）。根据音节的数量，可分为单音节尾韵(single rhyme)、双音节尾韵(double rhyme)和三重音节尾韵(triple rhyme)。单音节尾韵又称男韵或阳韵（masculine rhyme），是在诗行结尾重读音节之间出现的最普遍的押韵。 (6) She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all thats best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. (Byron, She Walks in Beauty) (6) contains exclusively masculine rhymes Now let us discuss the function of rhymes.The general function of rhymes is to get the texts more organized and to bestow music to the texts. Like alliteration, it may also be used to achieve more significant effects. 5.1.3 Assonance半压韵 准押韵,半谐音 Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. It is one of the important phonological features of literary texts. Consider an example in the following lines.内韵，又称中间韵、行内韵、腹韵，指一行诗内的一个词语与同一行诗行尾的词语或另一行诗中的一个词语之间的押韵。它不是在行尾的押韵，既可能与同一行诗中的词语押韵，也可能同下一行诗中的词语押韵，还可能同隔行诗中的词语押韵。 (18) Think from how many trees Dead leaves are brought To earth on seed or wing. (Vernon Watkins, The Compost Heap) The words that carry the assonance, as can be easily noticed, are: trees, leaves and seed. (19) Song Morning opened Like a rose, And the snow on the roof Rose-color took Oh, how the street Toward light did leap! And the lamps went out. Brightness fell down From the steeple clock To the row of shops And rippled the bricks Like the scales of a fish, And all that day Was a fairy tale Told once in a while To a good child. (Donald Justice)The use of assonance in these words may produce various effects. For example, when we pronounce the diphthong /eu/, our mouth must open - just as morning light spreads or a rose unfolds. The word oh in line five expresses wonder at the scenes of color and beauty. Furthermore, since the sound /eu/ as a diphthong takes longer duration to produce than monophthongs, it may suggest the way morning slowly unfolds in the poem. 5.1.4 Consonance辅音韵 Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables. It may be used to achieve various effects. (20) Like one in danger, Cautious, I offered him a Crumb And he unrolled his feathers And rowed him softer home- Than Oars divide the Ocean. Too silver for a seam- Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon Leap, plashless as they swim. (Emily Dickinson, A Bird)make the text more organized and at the same time adds to the musical quality of the poem. 5.1.5 Onomatopoeia拟声 it refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved. Crack came an officers club on his forehead. The ticking of the clock was the only sound that greeted him, for not a soul remained. The uses of crack in (22) and ticking in (23) create a vivid effect to the passages. The sounds make us hear as well as see what are described.5.2 Rhythmic Patterning 节奏模式 5.2.1 Stress In English, every word except the monosyllabic单音节的 ones has one syllable that carries the stress. For example, the word moment has the stress on its first syllable. 5.2.2 Metre格律 The rhythmic patterning of English verse is usually analyzed in terms of metre. The analysis of the metre of a poem usually consists of two steps. The first step is to examine the type of foot it has. The four main types of foot, are: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl. Now let us take a look at each of these types in turn. 1) Iamb抑扬格 Iamb or Iambic foot is the commonest type of verse foot. (30) In eve | ry cry | of eve | ry man In eve | ry in | fants cry | of fear (W. Blake, London) 2) Trochee扬抑格 Trochee or trochaic foot may be described as alternating stressed and unstressed syllables, beginning with a stressed syllable, e.g. (32) Men of |England, | wherefore |plough For the | Lords who |lay ye | low? (P. B. Shelley, Song to the Men of England) 3) Anapaest抑抑扬格 Anapaest or the anapaestic foot is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, but beginning with the two unstressed syllables, e.g. (34) The Assy | rian came down | like the wolf | on the fold. (Byron, The Destruction of Sennacherib) 4) Dactyl扬抑抑格 Dactyl or dactylic foot may be described as alternating one stressed and two unstressed syllables, beginning with the stressed syllable, e.g. (36) Sing me a | song of a | lad that is | gone (R. L. Stevenson) (37) Take her up, | tenderly Lift her with | care; (Thomas Hood, The Bridge of Sighs) We have examined the types of foot in English verse. The second step in analyzing the metre is to see how many feet there are in a line.Thus, we have: 1) Monometer单音步 (39) Thus I Pass by And die As one Unknown And gone. (Robert Herrick, Upon his Departure Hence) 2) Dimeter二步格 (40) One more un | fortunate Weary of |breath Rashly im | portunate, Gone to her | death! (Thomas Hood, The Bridge of Sighs) 3) Trimeter三音步 (41) Mortal | man and | woman Go up | on your, | travel! (E. B. Browning, A Drama of Exile) 4) Tetrameter四音步句 (42) Who fought | for free | dom, more | than life Who gave | up all, | to die | in strife? (John Watkins, Lines on Shell, Killed at Newport) 5) Pentameter五音步句 (43) How like | a win | ter hath | my ab | sence been From thee, | the plea | sure of | the flee | ting year! (Shakespeare, Sonnet XIV) 6)Hexameter六步句 (44) Still let | my ty | rants know, | I am | not doomed | to wear Year af | ter year | in gloom, | and de | solate | despair. (Emily Bronte, The Prisoner) Our analysis so far enables us to give a description of the basic metrical pattern of a poem. For example, the lines by Emily Bronte (the final example above) can be said to be written in iambic hexameter. 5.2.3 Metrical Variation 韵律变异（有些诗句并不严格遵守几音部什么格） To be | or not | to be, | that is | the question. If we want to give a description to this line in technical terms, we may say that the line is written in iambic pentameter, with an unstressed third foot, inversion of the fourth foot and one hypermetrical syllable (i.e. extra syllable) after the last foot. From the above discussion, we can see that the analysis of the rhythm of a poem must take into account the variations on the basis metrical pattern. 以此理论分析几首大的诗歌，猜猜会考哪一首Chapter 6Syntactic Overregularity 句法的过分规约 Syntactic overregularity in literature is revealed显示为 mainly in the repetition of certain linguistic units of a text and in parallelism, where some features vary while others are kept constant. 6.1 Repetition All the overregular features in literature are, in some sense, repetitious. The term repetition, mean the case of exact copying of a certain previous unit in a text, such as a word, phrase or even a sentence. 6.1.1 Immediate Repetition即时性重复 (1) Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day, Rage, rage against the dying of light. The lexical item rage in the last line of the stanza is repeated immediately. (2) Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! Bright and yellow, hard and cold, t the word Gold is repeated four times. 6.1.2 Intermittent Repetition间隔性重复 known as ploce in traditional rhetoric. (4) O, how that name befits my composition, Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old. (Shakespeare, Richard )the second occurrence of the lexical item gaunt is used ambiguously. (5) Not many lives, but only one have we;One, only one.(Anonymous, Only One Life) The word one is repeated intermittently three times and the word only twice. This greatly emphasizes the fact that there is only one life for a person and suggests that one should really treasure it.6。.2平行结构 parallelismParallelism means exact rep