新概念英语地道英文表达之定语结构的多样性.doc

新概念英语地道英文表达之定语结构的多样性 (2009-05-22 08:34:55)转载新概念英语第二册28课No Parking 中Jasper White if one of the few people who believes in ancient myths.” 第一次介绍定语从句后紧接着就在第29课Taxi中介绍分词作定语这项语法。这并非偶然，用作定语的时候这两种结构间存在一定的关联，并且在文章中多数情况下是交替使用的。 很多情况下定语从句如果先行词（即定语从句所修饰的名词）在从句中作主语，则从句可以简化成一个分词短语。例如：People who live in urban areas are often inflicted by the polluted air and the ever-jammed traffic. (住在市区的人们经常受到污染的空气和总是拥挤的交通的折磨)这句话中 “who live in urban areas” 是用来修饰名词people的定语从句。把这个从句还原成完整的句子people live in urban areas 则可以看出先行词people在从句中用作主语。先行词在从句中作主语的定语从句可以通过省略关系代词同时在从句的第一个动词后加ing简化成一个分词短语，也就是说这句话可以省略关系代词who，同时在从句第一个动词live后加ing变成living in urban areas，那么整句话就是 People living in urban areas are often afflicted by the polluted air and the ever-jammed traffic.我们再来练习几句话：Children who play computer games for a long time are not only hurt physically but also mentally.长时间玩游戏的孩子不仅在生理上也在心理上受到了伤害。Children playing computer games for a long time are not only hurt physically but also mentally.（省略关系代词who，在从句第一个动词play 的后面加ing）The students who have finished their homework may go home now.完成作业的学生们可以回家了。The students having finished their homework may go home now.（省略who，在从句第一个动词have后加ing） 如果从句的第一个动词是be动词，那么加ing后being通常是省略掉的。例如：The taxi is a small Swiss airplane which is called a Pilatus Porter.这个出租车是一架小型的瑞士飞机乘坐Pilatus PorterThe taxi is a small Swiss airplane called a Pilatus Porter.（省略which，is变成being后省略）Children who are taken proper care of by their parents are less likely to commit crime.受到父母恰当照顾的孩子们不太可能犯罪。Children taken proper care of by their parents are less likely to commit crime. 从上文中我们可以看出很多先行词在从句中作主语的句子可以变成分词作定语。这一点对于雅思写作的实际意义在于它可以使我们的文章语法结构更加丰富多彩，显得语言庄重又不失灵活。雅思写作的评分标准之一是Grammatical Range and Accuracy 语法范围和准确性。要在这方面获得高分就要尽量多的在文章中使用不同的语法结构。那么同学们在作文中难免会遇到不止一处用到定语从句的情况，这时候可以考虑定语从句与分词短语交替使用，即如果上一句话是用定语从句的话则下一句话换成分词作定语，避免只用一种语法结构是文章显得单调沉闷。这一点在新概念三册课文中体现得非常明显，例如第一课中As the evidence began to accumulate, experts from the Zoo felt obliged to investigate for the descriptions given by people who claimed to have seen the puma were extraordinarily similar.随着证据的积累，来自伦敦动物园的专家们觉得有必要调查，因为声称看到过美洲狮的人们做出的描述非常相似。这句话中因为后面的“people”跟随了一个定语从句，为了避免语法结构的重复前面的the descriptions 后面选用的是过去分词given（由which were given by people这个定语从据省略which并将were变成being后省略而来）。类似的还有这篇课文第二段的开头句，The hunt for the puma began in a small village where a woman picking black berries saw a large cat only five yards away from her.对美洲狮的搜寻开始于一个小村庄，在那里一个采黑莓的妇女看到一支大猫在离她仅有五码远的地方。这句话中由于前面village后面有定语从句“where”修饰，因此为避免重复在woman后用现在分词picking（who picked black berries 省略who并在第一个动词pick后加ing）作定语。 综上所述，英语的写作要注意语法结构的多样性，避免连续重复使用某一个语法结构。定语从句在一些情况下可以简化作分词短语，因此可以在写作中采用一句定语从句，一句分词短语的方式是文章的语法结构更加丰富多彩。新概念英语地到英文表达之同位语从句 (2009-05-22 08:37:04)转载在新概念英语二册第46课中我们第一次接触到同位语从句， “No one could account for the fact that one of the boxes were extremely heavy. （没有人能解释有一个箱子极其沉重这一事实）”。另外在三册的第一课中又一次出现同位语从句的用法“When reports came into London Zoo that a wild puma had been spotted forty five miles south of London, they were not taken seriously.（当报告送达伦敦动物园说在伦敦南部45英里外发现一支美洲狮的时候，没有人认真对待这些报告）”。此外在其他课文中还有同位语从句的使用这里就不一一列举了。 善用同位语从句能够起到使文章显得更加正式，更加地到的作用。雅思作文尤其是学术类作文要求语言的正式性，要求考生使用正式的用词以及句子结构。那么在英文正式文体中存在一种“名词优先”的原则，即能够使用名词的时候就少用形容词或者是动词。例如：同样表示“这个问题很复杂”，This problem is very complicated. 就不如 This problem is of great complexity. 来得正式。而同位语从句（名词后对名词进行解释说明的一种从句）作为名词的使用方法如果在写作中善加利用就能够起到给文章增色的作用。例如翻译“一些人认为大学生应该支付自己的全部学费”这句话翻译成Some people think that college students should pay the full amount of their tuition fees. 不如翻译成 Some people hold the belief that college students should pay the full amount of their tuition fees. 显得更正式。 同位语从句在句子中的位置比较灵活。通过新概念英语二三册的学习我们会了解到尽管同位语从句还有很多其他的应用但是对于雅思写作最为广泛的应用则是“名词 + that引导的完整陈述句”这个结构。That 引导的完整陈述句既可以紧随名词之后（第一段例一），也可以放在这个名词所在的句子或从句结尾（第一段例二）。 在用法上写作中使用最多的是用同位语从句解释说明前面名词的内容。比如上文中No one could account for the fact that one of the boxes was extremely heavy. 这句话中that后面的“有一个箱子极其沉重”解释的是前面的名词fact的内容。而When reports came into London Zoo that a wild puma had been spotted forty five miles south of London, they were not taken seriously. 这句话中“在伦敦南部四十五英里外发现一支野生美洲狮”解释的是前面名词reports的内容。也就是说我们可以在一个名词后用that加完整陈述句的方式解释说明这个名词的内容且这个同位语从句既可以紧随名词之后也可以放在名词所在句子或从句的结尾，例如：Yesterday, I received a letter from my sister that she would come to England next week. 昨天我收到我姐姐的一封信说她下周要来英格兰。（她下周要来英格兰是信的内容）We have read quite a lot of reports that smoking endangers health. 我们读过很多报道说吸烟有害健康。（吸烟有害健康是报道的内容） 在历史上同位语从句地位显赫有很多知名的运用，例如：We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal The Declaration of Independence （独立宣言） 我们坚信这些真理是不言自明的，所有人生来都是平等的（所有人生来平等是前面名词truth 真理的内容。）I have a dream that one day sons of former slaves and sons of former slave owners may sit together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream （马丁路德金 我有个梦想） 我有个梦想，有一天从前奴隶的地后代和从前奴隶主的后代可以像兄弟一样共坐桌边（“有一天”解释前面名词“梦想”的内容） 到这里相信同学们对于同位语从局应该有了初步的了解。具体到雅思写作的应用个人认为下面的句型还是值得记忆与使用的。表示“想，认为”这样的含义可以把同学们熟悉的 “think, believe”这样的动词改为 “ hold the belief that; be in favor of the idea that” 等同位语从句的句型，如：一些人认为广告是对本已有限的资源的浪费。Some people think that advertisements are a waste of the already scarce resources.可替换为Some individuals hold the belief that advertisements are a waste of the already scarce resources.我认为高等教育应该是免费的。I think that advanced education should be free.可以替换为I am in favor of the idea that advanced education should be free. 表示赞同某个观点的时候可以说 There is a good deal of truth in the belief that（原句出自新三第9课Flying cat）；而表示反对某个观点可以说There is little truth in the belief that，例如：应该立法保护儿童免遭网上暴力与色情内容的伤害这个想法非常正确。There is a good deal of truth in the belief that laws should be set up to protect children from online violent and pornographic information.一个孩子越早出国留学就越好这个观点并不正确。There is little truth in the belief that the earlier a child goes to study abroad, the better it is for him or her. 另外表示有证据证明某件事情可以说“There is evidence that ”，例如：有令人信服的证据证明吸烟和一些严重的疾病有密切的关系。There is convincing evidence that smoking has close relations with some serious diseases.新概念英语中值得借鉴的段落展开方式 (2009-05-22 08:39:09)转载 雅思写作不仅仅考核考生的单词语法等能力，四个评分标准中CC(coherence and cohesion 连接与连贯) 这个评分标准重点考核学生文章的条理性与连贯性。而段落的划分与段落的展开是体现文章条例与连贯的重要方面。在新概念英语尤其是新概念英语三册的学习中，考生可资借鉴的段落展开方式不胜枚举。 主题句 + 逐层解释的段落展开方式个人认为对考生写雅思作文价值最大的当数新概念三册第12课 Life on a Desert Island的第一段。议论文的段落可以在段首提出本段讨论的分论点，即本段主题句。第二句话对主题句中的某一点进行更详细的描述或者解释，第三句话又对第二句话中某点进行详细描述或解释，以此类推，通常一个段落可以解释三层因此也叫三步推进法。在上面提到的课文中：Most of us have formed an unrealistic picture of life on a desert island. 我们中的很多人都对荒岛生活有不切实际的遐想。（主题句）We sometimes imagine a desert island to be a sort of paradise where the sun always shines. 我们有时幻想荒岛是阳光终日普照的天堂。（解释什么是“不切实际的遐想”）Life there is simple and good. 那里的生活简单又美好。（解释什么是“天堂”）Ripe fruit falls from the tree and you never have to work. 成熟的水果自己从树上落下来，人们根本无需劳作。（解释什么是“简单又美好”） 这个思路可以应用到雅思写作中作为主体段的展开手段，下面我们一起仿照新概念三的结构练习一下如何对主题句进行解释。主题句：Smoking puts smokers health at risk. 吸烟危害到吸烟者的健康。第二句：If a person smokes, he or she is likely to get seriously ill. 如果一个人吸烟的话他很可能得严重的疾病（解释什么是“危害到健康”）第三句：Chances for tobacco users to get lung cancer or heart attack if far greater than that of nonsmokers. 吸烟者得肺癌或心脏病的可能性远大于非吸烟者。（解释什么是“严重的疾病”）第四句：According to statistics, the percentage of smokers who get these diseases is three times as high as that of those who stay away from cigarettes. 据统计吸烟者患这些疾病的比例是非吸烟者的三倍。（解释什么是“可能性远大于非吸烟者”）把这四句话放在一起，一个非常漂亮的雅思作文主体段产生了。Smoking puts smokers health at risk. If a person smokes, he or she is likely to get seriously ill. Chances for tobacco users to get lung cancer or heart attack if far greater than that of nonsmokers. According to statistics, the percentage of smokers who get these diseases is three times as high as that of those who stay away from cigarettes. 仿照这个段落同学们可以练习解释下列的主题句： “Space research accelerate the development of science and technology.”太空研究推动科技发展。 “International tourism exerts heavy burdens on local environment.”跨国旅游对当地环境造成负担。 “Advertisements are a waste of resources.”广告是浪费资源。 平衡观点文章的首段模板雅思作文很常见的一类题型是“一些人认为而另一些人认为”之后问你同意哪一方的观点或者对双方观点加以分析。这类题中大部分情况下双方观点都有一定道理，一边倒地绝对偏向哪一方都难以形成有说服力的结论。例如09年2月28日的考题：Some people believe that to improve public health the number of sports facilities should be increased. Others believe that it has little effects and need other measures to improve it. Discuss both ideas and give your opinion. 一些人认为为了改善公众健康应该增加体育设施。其他人则认为这样做几乎没有效果并且认为需要其它的措施改善公众健康。讨论双方观点并提出你的看法。 这样的题目写起来需要在第一段中介绍双方的观点并且最好在分析后再提出作者自己的看法。新三第12课为我们提供了一个近乎完美的开头段模板。Most of us have formed an unrealistic picture of life on a desert island The other side of the picture is quite the opposite Perhaps there is an element of truth in both these pictures. “我们许多人对于荒岛生活有一种不切实际的想法 另一种想法恰恰相反 也许，这两种想法都有可信之处” 这段话稍加修改 Some of us have formed the impression that 一些人认为However, others think quite the opposite. They hold that 然而其他人看法则相反。他们认为Perhaps, there is an element of truth in both of these statements, as is to be discussed below. 也许双方观点都有一定的可信性，讨论如下。这样一个漂亮的雅思作文首段模板就诞生了。 我们试着把上面那道题按照这个模板套用一下。可以写出Some of us have formed the impression that sports equipments should be added to better peoples health. However, others think quite the opposite. They hold that other efforts need to be made. Perhaps, there is an element of truth in both these statements, as is to be discussed below. 作为练习请同学们试着用这个模板写一下下面这些题目的第一段“一些人认为应该鼓励儿童使用电脑，而一些人认为这样做弊大于利，你的观点是”“一些人认为环境问题的解决难度太大个人无法参与其中而另一些人则认为每个人都应该为这一问题的解决尽一份力，讨论双方观点并提出你的看法”用新概念英语培养英语的思维习惯 (2009-05-22 08:41:07)转载 从入门级别向中级跨越的英语学员甚至一部分中级基础的学员在写作以及口语中都要面对英汉思维习惯的差异。几乎所有的老师都会提醒学生英语是线性思维而汉语是螺旋式思维。然而，究竟什么是线性思维习惯则莫衷一是，面对各种各样的解释学生往往一头雾水。其实，我们可以从新概念英语二册与三册课文句子顺序与段落展开方式中捕捉到一丝英语思维习惯的影子。1. 先重点后细节的句子顺序 英语习惯上把最重要的成分放在句子前，之后再交代辅助性的细节。在句子中动作的重要性要高于修饰动作的时间、地点等状语，因此英文的句子往往先说“某人做了某事”再说做这件事的时间地点方式等细节，这一点和汉语刚好相反。例如：“他们在大声地谈话。”这句话中，汉语把“大声地”放在动词“谈话”的前面，而这句话的英文翻译则先说“他们谈话”后说“大声地”： “They were talking loudly.” 请比较下列句子英汉语句子中划线部分与动词顺序的差别：侦探们整个早上一直在机场等候。Detectives were waiting at the airport all morning. (Lesson 7, NCE 2)最近它被一个客人弄坏了。Recently, it was damaged by a visitor. (Lesson 10, NCE2)一个人在箱子里一大堆毛织物上面躲着。A man was hiding inside the box on top of a pile of woolen goods. (Lesson 46, NCE2)通过比较即可发现，英语的句子先说出较为重要的“某人做某事”之后再说时间地点方式程度等细节。掌握这一点即可避免某些初学者常犯的诸如“I very much like music.”“We at school very hard study English.”之类的错误。我们可以把这个顺序简单归纳为“Point（重点，观点）+ Explanation（解释）”。这个顺序不仅在句子顺序中也可以在英文段落展开的方式中得到体现。2. Point + Explanation 的段落展开方式Point + Explanation 的思维习惯不仅仅体现在句子顺序上，更重要的是它可以指导同学们掌握段落写作的技巧。按照 P + E 的理论我们可以理解为英语的段落会在段首的位置用一句话交代本段最重要的内容（主题句），而该段后面的句子则围绕这个主题句进行解释。如果是写记叙段，则主题句很可能先告诉读者发生了什么事，再写出事件发生的具体内容，例如：I did not enjoy it. A young man and a young woman were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly (NCE 2, Lesson 1)这段讲述看戏经历的话中作者先说出了事件的主要结果 “I did not enjoy it” 再说具体发生了什么事 “A young man and a young woman were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly”再如：Recently, it was damaged by a visitor. She tried to play jazz on it. She struck the key too hard and two of the strings were broken. ( NCE2, Lesson 10)先说“最近它被一个客人弄坏了”这个结果，后解释弄坏的具体细节。类似的例子在新概念二册和三册的课文中还有很多，同学们可以按照这个思路自己寻找一下。比如大家可以找找“My trip took me longer than I expected”，“Dreams of finding lost treasure almost came true recently”这两句话在新概念二册文章中的位置并体会它们后边的内容是不是对这两句话进行解释。P + E 结构还可以用在议论段的展开中。议论段往往是用于证明某个观点（论点）。英文的段落的论点用一句话放在段首，再用后面的句子中对这个观点进行详细解释说明，亦即“主题句（point）+解释句（explanation）”的展开方式。例如新概念三册的第9课开头段：段首句Cats never fail to fascinate human beings. (猫总能引起人们极大的兴趣)交代出主题，后面则解释提出这个观点的原因：They can be friendly and affectionate towards humans, but they lead mysterious lives of their own as well. A cats ability to survive falls is based on fact.再如新概念三册第12课荒岛生活的第一段，段首句提出观点”Most of us have formed an unrealistic picture of life on a desert island.(我们许多人对于荒岛生活有一种不切实界的想法。)。此后的句子则解释什么是不切实际的想法，We sometimes imagine a desert island to be a sort of paradise where the sun always shines. Life there is simple and good. Ripe fruit falls from the trees and you never have to work. 这几句话都是在进一步解释第一句话中“不切实际的想法”的概念。3. P + E 结构在口语中的应用 中国学生在和英语国家的人在做口语交流的时候往往会不知所措地一个问题是对方经常问“why”或“why not”。例如：考官：Do you like any sport?学生：No, I dont.考官：Why not?学生：囧事实上，考生在这里往往没有意识到一点，即“我不喜欢体育运动”属于本文说的point/观点。在英文习惯上观点的后面会对这个观点加以解释。这里可以解释下自己不喜欢运动的原因以及不喜欢的程度。例如：No, I dont. I dont like sports because I have little time doing them. Anyway, working ten hours a day have already exhausted me off. Besides, the air pollution in Beijing is serious and I always feel hard to breathe after jogging or playing football. 请大家练习一下“你喜欢你的专业吗？”，“你是否喜欢你的工作”，“你觉得棒球这项运动怎么样？”这些问题的回答。此外，P + E 结构还可以用于解决口试中第二部分cue card的一部分问题。雅思口试的卡片题中偶尔会有人抽到描述某一物品的题目，如“Describe a piece of furniture/描述一件家具”或“Describe a piece of fruit/描述一种水果”等。课堂试验证明一些学生就算用中文描述也很难达到要求。在不到30秒内说完了“我想告诉你关于一个桌子。” “它是木头的，它是红色的，它有四条腿，它很重。”等等零乱的句子后他们要么没词了要么就开始编造一些不着边际的故事。这些都会影响到他们的成绩。事实上，在答题前的一分钟准备时间内考生可以针对要描述的物品分别总结出几个要点（point），之后再在每个点后面用两三句话加以解释就可以有效避免没话可说的尴尬，如：Id like to tell you about a table. It looks very large. It is about 4 feet tall and 4.5 feet wide. It has a length of about 7 feet.In spite of the size, the table is not very heavy. It is made of oak and weighs only 80 pounds.这两组描述桌子的句子中先总结出 “very large” 和 “not very heavy” 这两个点，之后再分别具体解释为什么说它很大“长宽高”或为什么说它不重“材质，重量”等。还是描述桌子，作为练习同学们可以试着解释一下“beautiful/漂亮”，“comfortable/舒适”，“old/旧的”，“useful/有用的”等等point。4. P + E 结构在写作中的应用分段是中国学生在雅思写作中比较严重的一个问题。很多学生往往在分配段落的时候跟着感觉走，觉得这段话写的太长了就分一段，或者干脆不分段，全部内容都放到一个庞大的段落里面。这种现象会导致段落主题不够明确甚至混乱，一个段落多个主题或者一个主题被分配到不同段落等问题。按照前文所述，写作中同学们应该尽量按照“主题句（point）”+“若干解释句（explanation）”的结构来布置段落，做到 “One point, One paragraph/一个段落一个主题”。如：Smoking puts smokers health at risk. Their chances of getting seriously ill are much greater than nonsmokers. According to statistics, the percentage of smokers getting lung cancer or heart attacks is three times as high as that of those who never touch tobaccos. In short, cigarettes kill. (吸烟会危害到吸烟者的健康。他们得严重疾病的可能性远高于非烟民。据统计，吸烟者肺癌与心脏病的发病率是那些从不碰烟草的人的三倍。简言之，烟草使人丧命。)这段话中先给出观点“吸烟危害吸烟者的健康”之后所有的句子都围绕这个观点展开解释。这样的段落会给考官主题明确，观点清晰的印象，在文章结构上给同学们加分。从新概念英语看写作用词的多样性 (2009-05-22 14:43:40)转载 中国雅思考生在写作中的误区之一是为了向考官显示自己单词量大而故意选择用一些难度很大的偏词甚至怪词。这样做很多情况下不仅没有起到提高写作成绩的作用，反而因为使用的单词难度太大或者这个单词和文章其他部分反差太大而对写作成绩产生负面影响。其实要想达到显示自己单词量的目的，我们可以在思路上参考一下新概念英语的一些课文。 The plane was late and detectives were waiting at the airport all morning. They were expecting a valuable parcel of diamond. To their surprise, the precious parcel was full of stones and sand.(NCE II. 7) 飞机晚点了，侦探们整个上午都在机场等候。他们在等一包来自南非的珍贵的钻石。让他们惊讶的是这个珍贵的包裹装满了沙子和石头。 英文单词的使用强调“Diversity”即多样性，要求同一段中表示相同的含义尽量多的用不同的词，尽量避免重复用词。上面这段选自新概念英语第二册的课文中我们可以看到作者在第一句话和第二句话都用到了“等候”这个词，但是在英文中分别用wait 和 expect 表示。另外，在表示“珍贵的”这个意思的时候在第二句和最后一句中分别用了valuable 和 precious这两个词。此外在新概念二册第十课Not for Jazz这篇课文的开头部分 We have an old musical instrument. It is called a clavichord. It was made in Germany in 1681. Our clavichord is kept in the living room. It has belonged to my family for a long time. The instrument was bought by my grandfather many years ago. Recently, it was damaged by a visitor. 这段文字中表示古钢琴这个含义作者分别用了“old musical instrument, clavichord, it, the instrument, our clavichord”等五种说法。充分体现了英语用词得多样性。 新概念三册中这样的句子也并不少见，例如：新三第一课第一段中Pumas are large catlike animals which are found in America. When reports came into London Zoo that a wild puma had been spotted forty five miles south of London, they were not taken seriously. However, , for the description given by people who claimed to have seen the puma were extraordinarily similar. 这段话中三