语言学4From-Word-to-Textppt课件

,Linguistics,语言学教程（第三版）,Chapter4,FromWordtoText,Syntax,2020/4/29,.,2,Chapter4FromWordtoText,Teachingobjectives:enablethestudentstounderstandanddescribetheinternalstructuresofsentencesTeachingFocus:differenttreatmentofsentencestructurebydifferentlinguisticschoolsTeachingdifficulties:ICanalysis,deep/surfacestructure,treediagramTeachingMethodsConnaissez-vouscemonsieur?法语SOVPensivepoetspainfulvigilskeep（Pope）（忧郁的诗人痛苦的祈祷长吟(鲍勃)）；“你饭吃了吗？”OVS“JonesIinvitednotSmith”，“饭吃了吗你？”OSV那本书我看完了。“饭你吃了吗？”VOS“吃饭了吗你？”谓宾主,2020/4/29,.,13,1.2RelationofSubstitutability,TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.首先，在相同结构的句子中，语法上可以相互替代的词类或者语词的集合(指在同一语句结构中可用其他相似类别的词语来代替）Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.其次，由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替特定集合中的某个语词,2020/4/29,.,14,Thesmiles.Hewentthere,yesterday.lastweek.thedaybefore.,strongmantallestboyprettygirl,1.2RelationofSubstitutability,2020/4/29,.,15,ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andparadigmaticRelations(纵组合关系)byHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.,1.2RelationofSubstitutability,2020/4/29,.,16,叶尔姆斯列夫（LouisHjelmslev）,叶尔姆斯列夫（LouisHjelmslev），丹麦语言学家。哥本哈根学派的创始人和主要理论家。1899年10月3日生于哥本哈根，卒于1965年5月30日。1917年进入哥本哈根大学学习比较语言学史，1919年发表关于Oscan语铭文的论文并获大学金质奖。1923年毕业于哥本哈根大学，1937年起回母校任教，主持比较语言学系。19261927年，叶尔姆斯列夫开始接触索绪尔的理论，在巴黎跟随梅耶研究普通语法学。1928年，出版第一部重要著作普通语法学原理。这本书描写语言的范畴，明显地反映出索绪尔关于语言是符号系统的观点和E.萨丕尔的概念范畴的影响。后来又出版格的范畴（2卷，19351937）。,2020/4/29,.,17,叶尔姆斯列夫（LouisHjelmslev）,1931年，叶尔姆斯列夫发起成立哥本哈根语言学会，自任会长，人们称之为哥本哈根学派。1932年发表题为波罗的语言研究的博士论文，主要讨论波罗的语言的历史音位学问题。和H.乌尔达尔（19071957）合作，研究语音学和音位学，写出了音声学原理，1935年在第二次国际语音学家大会上提出。接着，他们把音声学发展成一般性理论，创立语符学，1936年在国际语言学家大会上提出。1943年，叶尔姆斯列夫用丹麦文出版语言理论基础一书，这是语符学理论的代表性著作，讲语言的共时研究。1935年发表了论格的范畴-普通语法研究之一。同一年，在伦敦语音学大会上，他和乌尔达尔一起提出了语言表现分析的理论，形成了他的语言理论的雏形。1943年，他写成语言理论导轮（英译本名为ProlegomenatoaTheoryofLanguage），完成了他的语言理论建设。这是哥本哈根学派的一本最权威的代表作。1956年，他亲手创建了哥本哈根大学语言学和语音学学院，并担任院长。1965年5月30日，叶尔姆斯列夫去世，享年65岁。,2020/4/29,.,18,1.3RelationofCo-occurrence,Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。（指不同类别的词可以联合使用）,2020/4/29,.,19,Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.,2020/4/29,.,20,SummaryofSyntacticRelations,Positionalrelationdemonstratesthesyntagmaticrelation.Relationofsubstitutiondemonstratestherelationofparadigmaticrelation.Relationofco-occurrenceispartiallysyntagmaticandpartiallyparadigmatic.,PartII,.,1._refertotherelationshipthatlinguisticunitshavewithotherunitsbecausetheymayoccurtogetherinasentence.a.Syntagmaticrelationsb.Hypotacticrelationsc.Paradigmaticrelationsd.Paratacticrelations【答案】a2._referstotherelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotheratparticularplaceinstructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.a.Syntagmaticrelationb.Paradigmaticrelationc.Co-occurrencerelation【答案】B,Exercise,2020/4/29,.,22,Therelationbetweenasentenceanditscomponentelements,isgenerallyreferredtoastherelationbetweenaCONSTRUCTIONanditsCONSTITUENTS.,ImmediateConstituentAnalysis,ICAnalysis,Thisnotion(immediateconstituent)wasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistLeonardBloomfield(Language,1933.),PoorJohnrunaway.,poorJohn,runaway,poorandJohn;ranandaway,2020/4/29,.,23,Bloomfieldsaid”AnyEnglish-speakingpersonconcernshimselfwiththismatter,issuretotelltheimmediateconstituentsarethetwoforms:poorJohn,runaway”,botharecomplexform.TheimmediateconstituentsofpoorJohnarepoorandJohn;andtheimmediateconstituentsofrunawayareranandawayImmediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction.Thisconstructionmaybeasentence,maybeawordgroup,mayalsobeaword.Thelastlevelofconstituentsismorphemes,knownasultimateconstituents.,2020/4/29,.,24,CONSTRUCTIONA:STENTENCEPoorJohnranaway.CONSTRUCTIONB:WORDGROUPPoorJohnpoorandJohn;runawayranandawayCONSTRUCTIONC:WORDAwordmaybeanalyzedintoitsimmediateconstituents:morphemes.,lovelylovelytalkedtalked,2020/4/29,.,25,Anysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.（语法结构体用来指语言中被赋予一种或多种功能的任何语法建构，包括在语言学上该建构所拥有的常规意义和用法）（结构体指的是语法单位的有序排列，以形成更大的单位）eg.SVOClause,Det.+objectNP结构体是可以反复出现的句法模式，是一种抽象形式。Externalsyntax:propertyoftheconstructionasawhole.Internalsyntax:descriptionoftheconstructionsmake-up.,2.GrammaticalconstructionthuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences.Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?,2020/4/29,.,50,Characteristicsofsubjects,A.Wordorder:Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.,B.Pro-forms(代词形式):ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:eg:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.,2020/4/29,.,51,C)Agreementwiththeverb:Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:,Characteristicsofsubjects,eg:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.Sheangersthem.,2020/4/29,.,52,D)Contentquestions（实意问句）:Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishCouncil.WhostoletheQueenspicturefromtheBritishcouncil?,Whenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword,anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject.,WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechance?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealtheQueenspicturefrom?,Characteristicsofsubjects,2020/4/29,.,53,E)Tagquestion(反意问句):Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.JohnlovesMary,doesnthe?MarylovesJohn,doesntshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesntshe?,Characteristicsofsubjects,2020/4/29,.,54,3.2Predicate谓语,Predicatereferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboyisrunning.(process)Peterbroketheglass.(action)Janemustbemad!(state)Thewordpredicator（谓语动词）issuggestedforverborverbsincludedinapredicate.,2020/4/29,.,55,3.3Object,Objectisalsoatermhardtodefine.Since,traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDirectObjectandIndirectObject.Motherboughtadoll.Mothergavemysisteradoll.IODO,2020/4/29,.,56,Insomeinflectinglanguages,objectismarkedbycaselabels（格标记）:theaccusativecase（宾格）fordirectobject,andthedativecase（与格）forindirectobject.InEnglish,“object”isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).Mothergaveadolltomysister.Johnkickedme.,3.3Object,2020/4/29,.,57,Modernlinguistssuggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroketheglass.TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.PetersawJane.JanewasseenbyPeter.,3.3Object,Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice.Hediedlastweek.Thematchlastedthreehours.HechangedtrainsatManchester.(*TrainswerechangedbyhimatManchester.),2020/4/29,.,58,Therealizationofthesemajorclauseelements,2020/4/29,.,59,AdvPsandPPsassubject,Slowlyisexactlyhowhespeaks.Outonthelakewillbesplendid.Willaftertheshowbesoonenough?,2020/4/29,.,60,4.Category（范畴）,Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voice,2020/4/29,.,61,4.1Number（数）,Numberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.,InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.,Inotherlanguages,forexample,French,themanifestationofnumbercanalsobefoundinadjectivesandarticles.eg:lechevalroyal(theroyalhorse)leschevauxroyaux(theroyalhorses),2020/4/29,.,62,4.2Gender（性）,Suchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Thoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgender,theassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases.,eg:InLatin,ignisfireismasculine,whileflammaflameisfeminine.,Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.eg:he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoress,2020/4/29,.,63,InFrench,genderismanifestedalsobothinadjectivesandarticles.beaucadeau(finegift)bellemaison(finehouse)Lecadeauestbeau.(Thegiftisgood.)Lamaisonestbelle.(Thehouseisbeautiful.),Sometimesgenderchangesthelexicalmeaningaswell,forexample,inFrench:lepoele(thestove)lependule(thependulum)lapoele(thefryingpan)lapendule(theclock),2020/4/29,.,64,4.3Case（格）,Thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative（宾格）”,“nominative（主格）”,“dative（与格）”,etc.TherearefivecasesinancientGreekandeightinSanskrit.Finnishhasasmanyasfifteenformallydistinctcasesinnouns,eachwithitsownsyntacticfunction.,2020/4/29,.,65,InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:inflectionfollowingaprepositionwordorderasmanifestedinteacher:teacherswith/toamanJohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn,2020/4/29,.,66,4.4Agreement（一致关系）,Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).,2020/4/29,.,67,1)Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric（前指的）,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent（先行词）;Whoseisthispen?-Oh,itstheoneIlost.2)Itmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithitssubjectandobject:Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin.,3)Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:Thismanruns.Thebirdflies.Thesemenrun.Thesebirdsfly.,4.4Agreement（一致关系）,2020/4/29,.,68,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,Sentence,Clause,Phrase,Word,2020/4/29,.,69,eg:thethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult(adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast(adverbialphrase),5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,Phrase,5.1Phrase,2020/4/29,.,70,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,5.2Clause,.,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,2020/4/29,.,72,Non-finiteclause,Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly.Itsgreatforamantobefree.Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.Johnbeingaway,Billhadtodothework.Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.Itsnousecryingoverspiltmilk.Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow?,2020/4/29,.,73,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,5.3Sentence:traditionalapproach,Sentence,Simple,Non-simple,Complex,compound,2020/4/29,.,74,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentence,5.3Sentence:functionalapproach,Sentence,indicative,imperative,jussive,optative,interrogative,declarative,Yes/no,Wh-,2020/4/29,.,75,Basicsentencetypes:Bolinger(1969),Motherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal).MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal),2020/4/29,.,76,SVCMaryiskind.anurse.SVAMhehouse.SVThechildislaughing.SVOSomebodycaughttheball.SVOCWehaveprovedhimwrong.afool.SVOAIputtheplateonthetable.SVOOShegivesmeexpensivepresents.,Basicsentencetypes:Quirk(1972),2020/4/29,.,77,夸克(RandolphQuirk1920)早年曾在伦敦大学、耶鲁大学和密执安大学受过良好的教育，获得文学硕士、哲学博士、文学博士学位。他除有一段时期任德哈姆大学英语教授外，历任伦敦大学学院研究员、英国语言文学奎因讲座教授、伦敦大学校长。他是英国言语矫治委员会主席、英语丛书主编、“英语用法调查”研究项目的负责人。近年并荣任英国社会科学院(BritishAcademy)院长。他曾在美国、欧洲、苏联、非洲、印度、澳大利亚等地作过关于英语语法问题的讲演。夸克的主要著作是他和格林鲍姆、利奇、斯瓦特维克合作编写的当代英语语法(AGrammarofContemporaryEnglish,1972)和英语语法大全(AComprehensiveGrammarofEnglishLanguage,1985)。此外，他还与格林鲍姆合编了大学英语语法(AUniversityGrammarofEnglish,1974)。夸克的其它著作有：英语语法、英语古诗中的让步关系、英语的用法、论英语、英语教学、语言的可接受性调查英语用法与态度研究的征询试验、韵律特征系统与副语言特征系统等。,2020/4/29,.,78,Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.,6.Recursiveness(递归性),Allthesearemeanstoextendsentences.,Question1:,Howlongcanasentencebe?,2020/4/29,.,79,Theoretically,thereisnolimittotheembeddingofonerelativeclauseintoanotherrelativeclause,solongasitdoesnotbecomeanobstacletosuccessfulcommunication.Thesameholdstruefornominalclausesandadverbialclauses.,eg:Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew,2020/4/29,.,80,Recursiveness,togetherwithopenness,isgenerallyregardedasthecoreofcreativityoflanguage.,JohnssisterJohnssistershusbandJohnssistershusbandsuncleJohnssistershusbandsunclesdaughter,etc.,thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijing,2020/4/29,.,81,6.1Conjoining,Conjoining:coordination.Conjunctions:and,but,andor.eg:Johnboughtahatandhiswifeboughtahandbag.Givemelibertyorgivemedeath.,2020/4/29,.,82,6.2Embedding嵌入,Embedding:subordination.Mainclausesandsubordinateclauses.Threebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:Relativeclause:Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.Complementclause:IdontknowwhetherProfessorLineedsthisbook.Adverbialclause:Ifyoulistenedtome,youwouldntmakemistakes.,2020/4/29,.,83,7.Textanddiscourse,Linguistsarenowexploringthesyntacticrelationbetweensentencesinaparagraphorchapterorthewholetext,whichleadstotheemergenceoftextlinguisticsanddiscourseanalysis.Textlinguistics（discourseanalysis）isabranchoflinguisticsdevelopedinandafterthe1950swhichstudiesandanalyzeslinguisticitemslargerthansentencesorutterancesinordertoexplainhowcohesionandcoherenceareachieved.,2020/4/29,.,84,7.1SententialConnection,Hypotactic(subordinateclauses):Paratactic(coordinateclauses):,1)InGuangzhouitishotandhum