国际贸易-Ch.10-GATT-and-WTO

,CHAPTER10GATTandWTOGATTWTOChinaandWTO,1GATT,1.TheoriginationoftheGATT2.TheGATTsactivities:eighttradenegotiation“Rounds”3.TheUruguayRoundoftradenegotiations4.TwoGATTs5.WTOvs.GATT:maindifferences,TheoriginationoftheGATTTheoriginalintentionwastocreateathirdinstitutiontohandlethetradesideofinternationaleconomiccooperation,joiningthetwo“Brettoninstitutions,theWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFund.Over50countriesparticipatedinnegotiationstocreateanInternationalTradeOrganization(ITO)asaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations.Meanwhile,adealon45,000tariffconcessionswassignedby23countrieson30October1947.Thetariffconcessionscameintoeffectby30June1948througha“ProtocolofProvisionalApplication”.SotheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTradewasborn,with23foundingmembers(officially“contractingparties”).,TheITOCharterwasfinallyagreedinHavanainMarch1948,butratificationinsomenationallegislaturesprovedimpossible.ThemostseriousoppositionwasintheUSCongress,eventhoughtheUSgovernmenthadbeenoneofthedrivingforces.In1950,theUnitedStatesgovernmentannouncedthatitwouldnotseekCongressionalratificationoftheHavanaCharter,andtheITOwaseffectivelydead.So,theGATTbecametheonlymultilateralinstrumentgoverninginternationaltradefrom1948untiltheWTOwasestablishedin1995.,2.TheGATTsactivities:eighttradenegotiation“Rounds”Thefirstfiveroundsoftradenegotiations(1947-1961)Somemultilateraltariffreductionswereachieved.,(2)TheKennedyRoundoftradenegotiations(1964-67)TheUnitedStatesledthewayintoanewroundofnegotiationsfrom1964to1967.Tariffsonmanufacturedproductswerereducedbyanaverageof35percent.Littleprogresswasachievedinreducingbarriersonagriculturalproducts.Littlewasdonetoeasenon-tariffbarriers.,(3)TheTokyoRoundoftradenegotiations(1973-79)Itcontinuedtoreducetariffs,bringingtheaveragetariffonindustrialproductsdownto4.7%.Aseriesofagreementsonnon-tariffbarriersdidemergefromthenegotiations,insomecasesinterpretingexistingGATTrules,inothersbreakingentirelynewground.Itfailedtocometogripwiththefundamentalproblemsaffectingfarmtradeandalsostoppedshortofprovidingamodifiedagreementon“safeguards”(emergencyimportmeasures).,3.TheUruguayRoundoftradenegotiations(1986-94)Problems1:GATTscredibilityandeffectivenesswasundermined:GovernmentsinWesternEuropeandNorthAmericaseekbilateralmarket-sharingarrangementswithcompetitorsandembarkonasubsidiesracetomaintaintheirholdsonagriculturaltrade.Problem2:GATThadbeenfoundwanting.Itwasclearlynolongerasrelevanttotherealitiesofworldtradeasithadbeeninthe1940s.Littlesuccessinliberalizingagriculturaltrade;TradeintextilesandclothingwasanexceptiontoGATTsnormaldisciplines;GATTsinstitutionalstructureanditsdisputesettlementsystemwerecausingconcern.,TheUruguayRoundexperiencedtwophases:Thefirstfouryears,19861990(15groups)Tariffs;NTBs;Tropicalproducts;Naturalresource-basedproducts;Textilesandclothing;Agriculture;Safeguards;Subsidiesandcountervailingduties;Trade-relatedintellectualpropertyrestrictions;Trade-relatedinvestmentrestrictions;Services.FourotherareasdealingwithGATTitself.,TheUnitedStatesinitiallyproposeda10yearphaseoutofallsubsidiesthataffectagriculturaltradeandofallagriculturalimportbarriers.ButtheEUwantedtogomoreslowlyandtomoderatetheextentofreductioninagriculturesupport.By1990,thewidedisparityinsubsequentproposalsovershadowedallotheraspectsofthenegotiations,andthefouryearefforthadseeminglyendedwithnosignedagreementontheliberalizationoftrade.,(2)Continuednegotiationsleadtosuccess,1993ECagriculturalsupportprogramthatharmedU.S.exportsofoilseeds.InretaliationfortheECsubsidy,theU.S.threatenedtoimpose200%tariffsonECexportstotheU.S.($300million).Anaccordwaseventuallyreachedbywhichtheoilseedsexportsubsidiesweretobereduced36%byvalueand21%byquantityoverasix-yearperiod.,ThispositivedevelopmentthensetoffactivitytoworkagainonmanyotheraspectsoftheUruguayRound.Finally,afterintensediscussions,the117participatingcountriesintheUruguayRoundreachedagreementonDecember15,1993andthesigningtookplaceonApril15,1994,inMarakech,Morocco.Afterratificationbyparticipatingcountries,theagreementtookeffectonJanuary1,1995.,(3)ProvisionsoftheUruguayRoundAgreementTariffsonaveragewerecutby34%.Thevalueofagricultureexportsubsidieswastobecutby36%andmostdomesticsupportforagricultureby20%.TextilesandappareltradewastobemovedfromtheexistingquotaframeworkofMulti-fiberArrangementintotheGATTframework,withtariffstobephasedoutover10years.Revisedruleswereadoptedregardingdumpingandexportsubsidies,andavoluntaryexportrestraintsweretobeeliminated.,Actionsontrade-relatedintellectualpropertyrights(TRIPS)providedforminimumstandardsfortrademarks,patents,andcopyrights.Sometrade-relatedinvestmentmeasures(TRIMS)weretobeeliminated.AspecificGeneralAgreementonTradeinServices(GATS)callsfor“nationaltreatment”.Newprocedureswereadoptedforthesettlementofdisputes.GATTitselfwasreplacedbyaneworganization,theWorldTradeOrganization.,4.TwoGATTs(1)Asaninternationalagreement,GATTstillexists.Butitisnolongerthemainsetofrulesforinternationaltrade.Andithasbeenupdated.Theoldversion:“GATT1947”Theupdatedversion:“GATT1994”,livesalongsidetheGATSandTRIPS(2)Asaninternationalorganizationcreatedlatertosupporttheagreement,GATTnolongerexists.,5.WTOvs.GATT:maindifferences(1)NatureGATTadhocandprovisional(neverratifiedinmembersparliamentandcontainednoprovisionsforthecreationofanorganization)WTOpermanent,hassoundlegalbasis(membershaveratifiedtheWTOagreements)(2)ScopeGATTgoodsonly.WTOgoods,servicesandtrade-relatedaspectsofintellectualpropertyrights.,(3)ApproachGATTselectivebasis(plurilateral)WTOasingleundertaking(multilateral)(4)DisputesettlementWTO:SpecifictimelimitsfasterthantheGATTHaspermanentappellatebodytoreviewfindingsbydisputesettlementpanel.,2WTO,1.AnOverview2.ThefundamentalprinciplesoftheWTO3.ThestructureoftheWTO4.WTOAgreements5.Ministerialconferences,AnoverviewOneoftheresultsofUruguayRound,establishedinthelightoftheMarrakeshAgreementEstablishingtheWorldTradeOrganization,whichisincludedintheFinalActEmbodyingtheResultsoftheUruguayRoundofMultilateralTradeOrganizations.Theonlyinternationalorganizationdealingwiththeglobalrulesoftradebetweennations.BySeptember2009,theWTOhad153members.,TheWTOsoverridingobjectiveistohelptradeflowsmoothly,freely,fairlyandpredictably.Itdoesthisby:Administeringtradeagreements;Actingasaforumfortradenegotiations;Settlingtradedisputes;Reviewingnationaltradepolicies;Assistingdevelopingcountriesintradepolicyissues,throughtechnicalassistanceandtrainingprogrammes;Cooperatingwithotherinternationalorganizations.,2.ThefundamentalprinciplesofWTOTradewithoutdiscriminationMost-favoured-nationtreatment(MFNT):Treatingotherpeopleequally.Grantsomeoneaspecialfavour(suchasalowercustomsdutyrateforoneoftheirproducts)andyouhavetodothesameforallotherWTOmembers.GATTArticle1,GATSArticle2,TRIPSArticle4.Exceptions:FreeTradeArea,GSP,tradedunfairly.Exceptionsareallowedunderstrictconditions.,NationaltreatmentTreatingforeignersandlocalsequally.Importedandlocally-producedgoodsshouldbetreatedequallyatleastaftertheforeigngoodshaveenteredthemarket.GATTArticle3,GATSArticle17andTRIPSArticle3.Nationaltreatmentonlyappliesonceaproduct,serviceoritemofintellectualpropertyhasenteredthemarket.Therefore,chargingcustomsdutyonanimportisnotaviolationofnationaltreatmenteveniflocally-producedproductsarenotchargedanequivalenttax.,(2)Freertrade:gradually,throughnegotiationLoweringtradebarriersisoneofthemostobviousmeansofencouragingtrade.Openingmarketscanbebeneficial,butitalsorequiresadjustment.TheWTOagreementsallowcountriestointroducechangesgradually,through“progressiveliberalization”.Developingcountriesareusuallygivenlongertofulfilltheirobligations.,(3)Predictability:throughbindingandtransparencyIntheWTO,whencountriesagreetoopentheirmarketsforgoodsorservices,they“bind”theircommitments.Acountrycanchangeitsbindings,butonlyafternegotiatingwithitstradingpartners,whichcouldmeancompensatingthemforlossoftrade.Discouragetheuseofquotasandothermeasuresusedtosetlimitsonquantitiesofimports.Makecountriestraderulesasclearandpublic(“transparent”)aspossible.,(4)PromotingfaircompetitionNotanentirelyfreetradeinstitution.Thesystemdoesallowtariffsand,inlimitedcircumstancesotherformsofprotection.Moreaccurately,itisasystemofrulesdedicatedtoopen,fairandundistortedcompetition.ManyoftheotherWTOagreementsaimtosupportfaircompetition.Allowchargingadditionalimportdutiescalculatedtocompensatefordamagecausedbyunfairtrade.,(5)EncouragingdevelopmentandeconomicreformAllowforspecialassistanceandtradeconcessionsfordevelopingcountries.Theagreementsdidgivedevelopingcountries,particularlysoforthepoorest,“least-developed”countries,transitionperiodstoadjusttothemoreunfamiliarand,perhaps,difficultWTOprovisions.,3.ThestructureoftheWTO,Thehighestauthority:theMinisterialConferenceCarryoutthefunctionsoftheWTO.Meetatleastonceeverytwoyears.(2)Thesecondlevel:GeneralCouncilinthreeguises.ItconductsthedaytodaybusinessoftheWTO.ItiscomposedofrepresentativesofallWTOmembers,whichmeetonaregularbasis(normallyonceeverytwomonths).ItactsonbehalfoftheMinisterialConferenceintheperiodsbetweenitsmeetings,andreportsdirectlytoit.TheGeneralCouncilconvenesalsoastheDisputeSettlementBody(DSB)andTradePolicyReviewBody.,(3)Thirdlevel:CouncilsforeachbroadareaoftradeandsixothercommitteesThreecouncils:GoodsCouncil,ServicesCouncil,TripsCouncil.Committeescovertradeanddevelopment,theenvironment,regionaltradingarrangements,andadministrativeissues.(4)Fourthlevel:committeesdealingwithspecificsubjectsandworkingpart.Eachofthehigherlevelcouncilshassubsidiarybodies.TheGoodsCouncilhas11committeesdealingwithspecificsubjects(suchasagriculture,marketaccess,subsidies,antidumpingmeasuresandsoon).,4.WTOAgreements“TheResultsoftheUruguayRoundofMultilateralTradeNegotiations:TheLegalTexts”isadauntinglistofabout60agreements,annexes,decisionsandunderstandings.Infact,theagreementsfallintoasimplestructurewithsixmainparts:anumbrellaagreement(theAgreementEstablishingtheWTO);agreementsforeachofthethreebroadareasoftradethattheWTOcovers(goods,servicesandintellectualproperty);disputesettlement;andreviewsofgovernmentstradepolicies.,Table10-3TheWTOsmajorlegaltext,3ChinaandWTO,ChinasaccessiontotheWTOChinawasoneofthe23originalsignatoriesoftheGATTin1948.AftertheCivilWarandtheestablishmentofthePeoplesRepublicofChinaandtheRepublicofChina,thegovernmentinTaiwanwastheofficialrepresentativeofChina.TheUnitedNationsandtheGATTwantedtoimposeanembargoonChina,butthiswasnotpossibleaslongasChinastillwasamember.TaiwansforeigntradewasunremarkableandtoharmthegovernmentinBeijing,ROCPresidentJiangKaishekannouncedthatChinawouldleavetheGATTsystem.AlthoughthegovernmentinBeijingneverrecognizedthiswithdrawal,nearly40yearslaterin1986,ChinanotifiedtheGATTofitswishtoresumeitsstatusasamemberoftheGATT.Aworkingpartywasestablishedin1987andChinaslongwayofenteringtheGATT/WTObegan.,1987-03-04:ChinasWorkingPartyconcernedonlyChinastraderegimeforgoods.1995:WTOWorkingPartysscopeincludetradeinservices,newrulesonnon-tariffmeasuresandrulesrelatingtointellectualpropertyrights.2001-09-17:finalmeetingoftheWorkingPartyheld,marksthefinalconclusionofnegotiationsonChinasWTOaccession.2001-11-10:theDohaMinisterialConferenceapprovedbyconsensusthetextoftheagreementforChinasentryintotheWTO.2001-12-11:Chinaratifieditsmembershipandbecameafullmember,theWTOs143rd.,2.OpportunitiesandchallengestoChinaOpportunitiesChinawillbeofferedmultilateral,unconditionalandstableMFNTbyallWTOMembers.Asafullmember,Chinawilltakepartinallnegotiationsregardingvariousareas,stipulatingandamendingtherelativeregulationsaswellastheconstructionofthesystemofthemultilateraltradesystem.BymakinguseofthemechanismandproceduresoftradedisputesettlementoftheWTO,Chinacansolvetradedisputeswithothercountriesmorefairlyandreasonably.BymakinguseoftheWTOforum,Chinamaypublicizeitspolicyofreformandopeningtotheoutsideworld,activelydevelopcooperationandcommunicationwithothercountriesinthefieldofeconomics,tradeandtechnology.,(2)ChallengesTransparencyandpredictabilityLawsandregulationsincludingthosenotpreviouslyavailabletothepublicwillberegularlypublished(intheWTOlanguagesaswell).A30-dayperiodforobtaininginformationandcommentaryisplannedpriortotheimplementationofnewlawsandregulations.TariffsSignificantlyreduceitstariffsonindustrialproductsbyJanuary2005to8.9%(downfromanaverageof25%)Tariffswillbesignificantlyreducedonmedicalequipment,scientificequipment,motor,etc.,ServicecommitmentsEliminationofmarketaccessrestrictionswillliberalizetheservicesectorsincludingtelecommunications,insurance,banking,andprofessionalservicessuchasaccounting,legalandmanagementservices.TradingrightsanddistributionAllenterprisesinChinawillbegrantedfulltradingrights(exceptforlimitedproductsreservedfortradebystateenterprises).Allowforeigncompaniesdistributingproductsthroughtheirownwholesaleandretailsystemsortoproviderelateddistributionservices.,ImportlicensingImportlicensingsystemmustcomplywiththeprinciplesofnationaltreatmentandnon-discrimination.ImportationandinvestmentapprovalsImportationandi