跨文化交际学(第一讲)

Introduction,Cultureisnothing;cultureiseverything;culturemeansmoreassignments;cultureistofindagoodjob.,CultureisasmacroasbeliefsandvaluesCultureisasmicroasagrainofsandCultureisasvisibleaspeopleCultureisasinvisibleaslove,Whatisculture?,Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves,IcamefromAlabamawithmybanjoonmyknee,ImgonetoLouisiana,mytruelovefortosee.ItrainedallnightthedayIleft,Theweatheritwasdry.ThesunsohotIfrozetodeath,Susannadontyoucry.Oh!Susanna,oh!Dontyoucryforme.IvecomefromAlabamawithmybanjoonmyknee.,BlowinInTheWind:Howmanyroadsmustamanwalkdownbeforehecalledaman?Howmanyseasmustawhitedovesailbeforehesleepsinthesand?Howmanytimesmustthecannonballflybeforetheyreforeverbanned?Theanswer,myfriend,isblowininthewind,theanswerisblowininthewind.,“Lifeislikeaboxofchocolates,Forrest.Youneverknowwhatyouregonnaget.”,Theoriesaboutculture,1)Goodenoughswidelyciteddefinitionrunsasfollows(1964:36):,Asocietyscultureconsistsofwhateveritisonehastoknoworbelieveinordertooperateinamanneracceptabletoitsmembers.Cultureisnotanaturalphenomenon;itdoesnotconsistofthings,peoplesbehaviororemotions.Itisratheranorganizationofthesethings.Itistheformofthingsthatpeoplehaveinmind,theirmodelsofperceiving,relating,andotherwiseinterpretingthem.,Cultureisanhistoricallytransmittedpatternofmeaningsembodiedinsymbols,asystemofinheritedconceptionsexpressedinasymbolicformbymeansofwhichmencommunicate,perpetuateanddeveloptheirknowledgeaboutattitudestowardslife(Geertz,1975:89).,Muchofthatknowledgeissymbolicallyexpressedinartefactsandbehavioursandisformulatedasrules,norms,expectations,asmoralandlegalcodes,asproverbs,asparentalinjunctionstochildren;butmuchofitistacit,scarcelyconsciousuntilsomeonedoestheunexpected(Hundeide,1985).,Themeaningsandnormsimplicitinthesepracticesarenotjustinthemindsoftheactorsbutareoutthereinthepracticesthemselves,practiceswhichcannotbeconceivedasasetofindividualactions,butwhichareessentiallymodesofsocialrelation,ofmutualaction.(Taylor,1971:27),BytheseImeannotionsofwhatissignificant,whicharenotjustsharedinthesensethateveryonehasthem,butarealsocommoninthesenseofbeinginthecommonreferenceworld.(Geertz,1971:30),Commonmeaningsarethebasisofcommunity.Intersubjectivemeaninggivesapeopleacommonlanguagetotalkaboutsocialreality(Geertz,1971:30).Culturesaredynamic,markedbychangesinresponsetonewsocietalChatian,1976:388;Seelye,1994),InChina,theword,“wen”and“hua”aretwoseparatecharactersandoriginallytheyweretwowords.Atfirst,“wen”meansthemind,education,civilizationwhile“hua”meanscultivationandunderstanding.Lateron,bythetimeoftheWarriorStatesandtheSevenKingdoms,thetwowordswereconnectedtogethertobecomeonewordtorefertothecivilization,educationandalsothelivingandthinkingwaysandmodes,thebehaviours,customsandvalues.(fromZhangDai-nianandFanKe-li,1994:1-3;ChengYu-zhen,1998:3.IntroductiontoChineseCulture),文化,TrendofCulture,Globalisationandinternationlisation,scienceanddemocracy,mixedandsharedculturalfeatures(seekingharmonyoutofthedifferences)willbetheoverpoweringingredientsinthefutureculture.Economiccooperation,interculturalcommunicationandcultureexchangeswillbetheessentialinterests.Therenowexistmulti-culturelanguages(eg.AmericanEnglish)andmulti-languagecultures(e.g.Canadiancultures).CulturethroughEnglishcanbedividedintotargetculture,sourceandinternationalculture(Zaid,1999),RelevantaspectsofCulturalStudies,EasternandWesternculture,High-contextculturesrelyonthecontext,eithertheactualphysicalenvironmentofcommunicationoraninternalizedsocialcontextorboth,toconveyalargepartorevenallofthemessagesmeaning.Inlow-contextcultures,themeaningistrustedalmostentirelytowords(EdwardHall,1990;Samovar,1998)RenandLiarethekeyconceptsofConfucianism.Theycomplementandoverlapwitheachother.Liservesasthenormandmeansforachievingtheacceptableendsofsociallife,RenloveandreciprocityandthegoaloflifebasedonkinshiprelationshipsinthepatriarchalChinesesociety.Filialpiety,collectivism,harmoniousrelationship,powerandauthority,thenormofstatesandidentityarethedominatingaspectsofChineseculture.,Seekingharmony,consensusandbalanceofpowerisaboveeverythingelse.Meaningissuppressedintheimplicitcodesandsensitivetocontextualcues,forinstance,whosaysandhowtosayaremoreimportantthanwhatissaid.Formeninconfucialism,theresponsibilityisto“behaveproperlyinthepublic;supportthefamilyfinancially;makecontributionstothecountryandtheworld.ForwomeninConfucialism,wehavethe“threeobediences”(beforebeingmarried,obeythefather;afterbeingmarried,obeythehusbandandwhenthehusbanddiesobeytheson)and“fourvirtues”(virtuesofmoralbehaviours,verbalaswellasnon-verballanguage,appearanceandhouseworkskills).,InTaoiam,allbeingsandthingsarefundamentallyone.Taofocusesonnatureandnaturalorder.Buddhismischaracterisedbyelevatedhumanityandmorality.Itpresentsreleasefromexistenceasthegreatestgood.Buddhistsbelieveintransmigrationofsoulsthroughallphasesandformsoflife.Theyalsobelievethatlifeispermeatedwithsufferingcausedbydesire,thatsufferingceaseswhendesireceases,andthatenlightenmentobtainedthroughrightconduct,wisdom,andmeditationreleasesonefromdesire,sufferingandrebirth.,EastWestOrientationRelationshipsIndividualismEmphasisObligations/responsibilities/commitmentHumanrights/freedomPurposeHarmonyExtensionofself:e.g.persuasionNatureReciprocal,asymmetricalSymmetricalHierarchical/verticalEqual/horizontalCharacteristicsExpressiveInstrumentalIndebtednessContractualOther/listenerorientedSelf-orientedFaceandfaceworkLessfaceandfaceworkInterdependentIndependentComplementaryCompetitiveTolerantIntolerantPersonallyknownintermediariesProfessionalintermediariesSympatheticandempatheticObjectiveIn-groupandout-groupdistinctionIn-groupandout-groupindistinction,EastWestPersonalrelationshipsandpublicPersonalrelationshipsandrelationshipsoverlappublicrelationshipsseparateLongtermandstablerelationshipsShorttermandunstablerelationshipsWholepersonorientedRoleorientedPersonalImpersonalShowingconcernShowingconsideration/noimpositionMakinguseofrelationshipsNotmakinguseofrelationshipsAllowedfromidealroleenactmentNotallowedfromidealroleenactment,EastWestDiscourseCyclical/spiralLinear,chain-likeClimaxingAnti-climaxingEmphasisonoutcome/result/whatEmphasisonprocess/how;ProcessofsolvingproblemsFewercohesivedevicesEmphasisontheuseofcohesionNonverbalSilenceisgold.Negativeattitudetosilence,Smallscalechangesininitialconditionscanproducemassiveandunpredictablechangesinoutcome.2.Verysimilarinitialconditionscanproduceverydissimilaroutcomes.3.Regularityanduniformitybreakdownintoirregularityanddiversity.4.Effectsarenotstraightforwardandcontinuousfunctionsofcauses.5.Theuniverseislargelyunpredictable.6.Ifsomethingworksoncethereisnoguaranteethatitwillworkinthesamewayasecondtime.7.Determinismisreplacedbyindeterminism.8.Continuityisreplacedbydiscontinuity.9.Therearenolongeranygrandtheoriestoexplainphenomena.10.Long-termpredictionisimpossible.,ChaosTheory,ModernismandPostmodernism,ModernismPostmodernismLargeSmallHierarchicalFlattermanagementBureaucraticTeamworkDepartmentalisedMulti-teammembershipClosedOpenDemarcated.FlexibleboundariesSpecialised.MultipleabilitiesMechanisticOrganic/flexible/changingStandardised/inflexibleFlexible/niche-targetedFordistPost-FordistTechnocratic/impersonalPerson-centred-ProducercaptureConsumeristGrandplanNometa-narrativesSimilarity/continuityDifference/discontinuityAbsolutistvaluesRelativistvaluesControllingSelf-organising/autonomyPredictabilityUnpredictabilityDeterministic-Indeterminate,3.MechanicalSystemsandOrganicSystems,Mechanical(movesfrominto)organicEmphasisonindividualsEmphasisonrelationshipsObediencetoauthorityandMutualtrustandstatusinhierarchyconfidenceRigidadherencetoSharedresponsibilityanddelegatedresponsibilityinterdependenceCentraliseddecision-Membershipofcross-makingfunctionalteamsConflictmanagementConflictmanagementthroughcontrol/suppressionthroughproblem-solvingRigidjobspecificationsandFewspecificjobstandardpracticesspecificationsFormalchannelsofFormalandinformalcommunicationcommunicationchannelsLoyaltytothecompanyLoyaltytotheteam,DevelopingaCulture,(a)testingideas,opinionsandattitudes;(b)identifyingresistancesandtheirsources;(c)providingtrainingandeducation;makingthefamiliarstrangetothosewhoareimmersedinthecompanysothattheycanseeitwithfresheyes;scanningtheexternalenvironmentandcu