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.,Howtocancel(scalar)implicature?,陈慧珍廖曦仪白黎,.,Contents,Proposal,Experimentthereforeheknowhowtousechopsticks,-Theoilhasrunout.-Oh,thereisagaragearoundthecorner.,-Whatonearthhashappenedtotheroastbeef?-Thedogislookinghappy.,Conventionalimplicature:attachedtoparticularlexicalitemsorlinguisticconstructions,+,Generalizedimplicature:CP;stereotypes,Particularizedimplicature:context;againstCP,.,Neo-Griceanpragmatictheoriesofconversationalimplicature,Hornscales(何恩等级理论)HornsQ-principleandR-principle（1984）,LevinsonQ-principleI-principleM-principle,(mereinstantiationsofZipfianeconomy最低力原则),.,Hornscales,公式：(S指强项,W指弱项)条件：,1)在一个任意的句子框架A内必须实现A(S)蕴含A(W);2)S,W词汇性质相同;3)S,W涉及的是相同的语义关系或来自相同的语义场。,（转引项成东2006；Horn1972）,.,构成荷恩等级关系的常见等级词：1）不定代词,如等;2）数词,如等;3）情态词,如,等;4）连接词,如等;频度副词,如等;5）程度形容词,如等;6）动词,如,或等,.,Hornstheoryofconversationalimplicature,Zipf-leasteffort(省力原则或经济原则),-theforceofunification(speakerseconomy)（单一化力量）-theforceofdiversification(hearerseconomy)（多样化力量）,onewordformoremeaning,Differentwordsforeverymeaning,HornsQ-principleandR-principle,-Q-principle(Hearerbased):themaximizationofinformationalcontent(下限原则，推导上限含义)-R-principle(Speakerbased):theminimizationoflinguisticform（上限原则，推导下限含义）,.,Johnhasthreechildren.(a)+Johnhasatleastthreechildren.(b)+Johnhasatmostthreechildren.,.,Levinsonstheoryofconversationalimplicature,Q-principle:whatisntsaid,isnt.(话语信息)I-principle:whatisexpressedsimplyisstereotypicallyexemplified.（常规关系）M-principle:Whatissaidinanabnormalwayisnotnormal.(有标记话语),.,(4)Notallofthestudentswenttotheparty.+Someofthestudentswenttotheparty.(5)Johnsmiledatthesecretary.+Johnsmiledatthefemalesecretary.,(6)Jamescausedthecartostop.+Jamescausedthecartostopinanabnormalway.,.,Q-implicature,.,Q-scalarimplicature,Hornscales,typicalgeneralizedconversationalimplicatureQ-scalar：y+Q-scalar(negation)XEg:Thetwoimpressionistpaintingsaresimilar.+Thetwoimpressionistpaintingsarenotidentical.,HuangYan.PragmaticsM.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingAndResearch.2009.,.,狭义：等级含义是指人们通过使用构成荷恩等级(Hornscale)关系的典型等级词项,借助于等级推理的方法而推导出来的含义。这种等级推理就是强项蕴含弱项,弱项否定强项。,广义：等级含义则是指人们通过构建临时语境等级关系或某种临时概念(adhocconcept)为参照点,利用世界知识推导出来的含义。,项成东等级含义的研究综述J.当代语言学.2006(4):334-344,Definition,.,等级含义特征：,-可取消性(cancelability)-不可分离性(non-detachability)-可推导性(calculability）-非规约性(non-conventionality),.,.aputativeconversationalimplicaturethatpisexplicitlycancelableif,totheformofwordstheutteranceofwhichputativelyimplicatesthatp,itisadmissibletoaddbutnotp,orIdonotmeantoimplythatp,anditiscontextuallycancelableifonecanfindsituationsinwhichtheutteranceoftheformofwordswouldsimplynotcarrytheimplicature(Grice,1989:44).,Ithinkthatallconversationalimplicaturesarecancelable,会话含义的可取消性：语境取消与明确取消,.,1)Itiscoldinhere,butIdontwantyoutoclosethedoor.,2)Bobatesomeofthecake(saidwhenitwasfoundthatnocakewasleftonthetable),.,可取消等级含义特征：S1+connector+S21）连接词（connecter）2）S1与S2皆具有等级词项，如不定代词，等。3）S2蕴含S1，S1为弱项表达，S2为强项表达,？,.,Johnpassedsomeofhisexams.Infact,hepassedallofthem.Johnpassedsomeofhisexams.Infact,itsamazinghepassedallofthem.A:HowmanyexamsdidJohnpass？B：some.Infact,hepassedallofthem.,？,WhenisitpossibletocancelaSI?,.,1)Topic:whenthecancellationofimplicatureisanacceptablediscousemove2)Method:twoexperiments,3)AtypologyofmeaningAt-issuecontentProjectivemeaningConversationalimplicature,.,“At-issuecontent(Potts,2005)isthedescriptivemeaningcontributedbyanassertion,theonethatcanbedirectlydeniedbyourinterlocutorbecauseitistruth-conditional”,A:Whohastwocar？B:Ihavetwocars.C:infact,Ihavethreecars,At-issuecontent,.,Projectivemeaning(Simonsetal.,2010)itsurvivesasanutteranceimplicationevenwhentheutteranceoccursunderthesyntacticscopeofanentailment-cancelingoperator.ProjectivemeaningdoesnotaddressthecurrentQuestionUnderDiscussion(QUD)(Roberts,1996),itcomprisesbothpresuppositionsaswellasCIs(which,unlikepresuppositions,arenotbackgroundedandwhichconveyaside-commentbythespeaker).,Projectivemeaning,.,投射意义,由投射动词构成的行为或状态意义,预设说话者情感与态度的话语,系统功能语法把投射(projection)现象论述为两个过程之间的关系,心理过程与言语过程,-心理过程投射动词,如believe,forget,hope,imagine,know,suppose,understand,wonder,think,regret,-言语过程投射动词如say,tel,lexplain,state,ask,answer,reply,陈明芳.从英语动词的体义看语言的投射意义J.外语与外语教学.2005(5):56-61,.,1)Atlasttheteacherpersuadedtheboythathewaswrong.,Theboyrealizedthathewaswrong.),2)A:Whohasthreebrot