语言学Chapter 6 Pragmatics

.,Chapter6Pragmatics,.,Contents,IntroductionMicropragmaticsReference指称Deixis指示Anaphora回指Presupposition预设MacropragmaticsSpeechActTheoryTheCooperativePrincipleThePolitenessPrinciple,.,6.1Introduction,Youneedtoknowthedefinitionofpragmaticsthedifferencesbetweengrammaticalanalysisandpragmaticanalysis,.,TodayisSunday.,.,definitionofpragmatics,thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning;thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.,.,thedifferencesbetweengrammaticalanalysisandpragmaticanalysis,rules/principlesproducts/processes,.,6.2Micropragmatics,ReferenceDeixisAnaphoraPresupposition,.,6.2.1Reference,a.Whereisthefreshsaladsitting?b.Hessittingbythedoor.a.CanIlookatyourShakespeare?b.Sure,itsontheshelfoverthere.Youneedtoknowinference:processreference:theact,.,6.2.2Deixis,Youneedtoknow:definitionofdeixisfivetypesofdeixis,.,definitionofdeixis,.,fivetypesofdeixis,PersondeixisTimedeixisSpacedeixisDiscoursedeixisSocialdeixis,.,6.2.3Anaphora,Youneedtoknow:definitionofanaphora,antecedent,anaphorindirectanaphoraanddirectanaphora,.,6.2.4Presupposition,Youneedtoknow:definitionofpresupposition,presuppositiontriggersexamplesofpresuppositiontriggers,.,6.3.1Speechacttheory言语行为理论,illocutionaryactsclassificationofillocutionaryactsindirectspeechacts,.,SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”,.,6.3.1.1Illocutionaryacts言外行为,Youneedtoknowdefinitionofspeechacts,performativesentences,felicityconditionsthreekindsofacts(言语行为三分说),.,SomebasicnotionsinPragmatics,ContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningCorrectnessvs.appropriateness,.,Context,Context-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.,.,Pragmaticsvs.semantics,Semantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation,.,Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning,-Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;havingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?-utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?,.,Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmean,abagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.,.,Correctnessvs.appropriateness,*“Johnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.,Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983),.,Speechacttheory,.,Twotypesofutterances,Constatives(叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.,.,SomeExamplesofPerformatives,“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”,.,Austinsnewmodelofspeechacts,-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.,.,Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”,Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.,.,Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:Thatthephone.(1)-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”,.,Searlesclassificationofspeechacts(1969),Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布),.,Assertives/representatives,-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.ImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.,.,Directives,-Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!,.,Commissives,-Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.,.,Expressives,-Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.Imsorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.,.,Declarations,-Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.,.,Note:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!,.,Principleofconversation(PaulGrice),Cooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.,.,FourmaximsofCP,Themaximofquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.,.,Conversationalimplicature,Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,