英语应用文写作1ppt课件

.,Lecture2TheParagraph,.,Outline,1.关于段落2.段落的三成分3.段落的三要素4.段落的拓展方法5.练习,.,关于段落,段落就是用一系列在逻辑和结构上有联系的句子来表述一个中心思想。段落的实质性问题就是必须把中心思想表述清楚，段落的长短取决于它在文章中的地位。一般说来，段落由三个部分组成(过渡性段落除外)，即：主题句、扩展句和结论句。,提出中心思想topicsentence,解释说明中心思想supportsentence,总结重申中心思想conclusion,.,段落的三成分主题句,主题句是表示一个段落的中心思想的完整句子，这种句子是一种高度概括性的陈述，而不涉及具体细节。根据具体写作的需要，主题句可放在段首、段中、段尾，或段首段尾两次出现，或不明确写出，而是暗示出来。,.,主题句的形态和功能主题（atopic）作者的观点（anopinionorstatement）Thebenefitsofparticipatinginsportsarenumerous.Myfavoriteprogramis“Friend”.Ienjoytheprogramsaboutrealpeopleandrealexperience.,.,主题句的作用提示读者这一段的主要写作目的是什么让读者产生预感，知道其后大致要涉及什么内容。Peopleviewmoneydifferently.Somepeopleconsidermoneytherootofallevil.,.,主题句的特点1.主题句应具有概括性，而扩展句需要具体。Eachprogramwillfocusonaparticularfriendwhocanbeeitheracelebrityoraneverydayperson.Friendisaverypopulartalkshow.Thecostofmakingfakeproductsisusuallylowerthanrealones.Wehavetowonderwhyfakeproductsaresoprevalent.,.,2.主题句应是一种观点而不是一个具体的事实。如:Manycollegestudentsdopart-timejob.Manycollegestudentsdopart-timejobsforvariousreasons.Manypeoplebuypiratedproductsbecausethepriceismuchlowerthanlegalones.Thereasonwhypeoplebuypiratedproductsisvarious.,.,GeneralStatement(一般陈述句)SpecificStatement(具体陈述句)Thepersonateabigmeal.Sandyateadozeneggs,apoundofbacon,sixpiecesoftoastanddrankaglassoforangejuicebeforeshewenttoclassthismorning.,.,Supplyatopicsentenceforeachofthefollowingparagraphs:Differentcolorsusuallystandfordifferentfeelings.Red,forexample,isthecoloroffire,heat,bloodandlife.Peoplesayredisanexcitingandactivecolor.Theyassociateredwithastrongfeelinglikeanger.Redisalsousedforsignsofdanger,suchasstopsignsandfireengines.Orangeisthebright,warmcolorofleavesinautumn.Peoplesayorangeisalivelycolor.Theyassociateorangewithhappiness.Yellowisthecolorofsunlight.Peoplesayitisacheerfulcolor.Theyassociateyellow,too,withhappiness.Greenisthecoolcolorofgrassinspring.Peoplesayitisarefreshingcolor.,.,Roadisimportantinthedevelopmentofhistory.Itistheroadwhichdeterminesthesitesofmanycitiesandthegrowthandnourishmentofall.Itistheroadwhichcontrolsthedevelopmentofstrategiesandfixesthesitesofbattles.Itistheroadthatgivesitsframe-worktoalleconomicdevelopment.Itistheroadwhichisthechannelofalltrade,and,whatismoreimportant,ofallideas.Initsmosthumblefunctionitisanecessaryguidewithoutwhichprogressfromplacetoplacewouldbeaceaselessexperiment;itisasustenancewithoutwhichorganizedsocietywouldbeimpossible,thustheroadmovesandcontrolsallhistory.,.,Acatisnotasdevotedasadog.Adogwillfollowhismasteranywhere,butacatkeepstothehouseitisusedto;andevenwhenthehousechangeshands,thecatwillremainthere,solongasitiskindlytreatedbythenewowners.Acatdoesnotseemtobecapableofthepersonaldevotionoftenshownbyadog.Itthinksmostofitsowncomfort,anditsloveisonlycupboardlove,.,段落的三成分支持句,主题句的后面必须要跟上几个支持句用来进一步阐述、解释、说明主题句。可以用具体的事例、证据或进一步论证的手法来达到支持主题句的目的。,.,一个段落的支持句有主要支持句(majorsupportingsentences)和次要支持句(minorsupportingsentences)之分。主要支持句的特点是围绕段落主题句展开，每一个支持句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明，句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。次要支持句是指对主要支持句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个支持句。,.,Thereareseveralfactorsaffectingclimate.Onefactoristheamountofsunlightreceived.Altitude,ortheheightabovethesealevel,alsodeterminesclimate.Theoceanshaveaneffectontheclimateofadjacent（邻近的）land.Inaddition,climateisinfluencedbythegeneralcirculation(循环）oftheatmosphere.,.,Butthepiratedproductsreallydomuchharm.First,theyinfringeintellectualpropertyrights.Second,theyoffendagainsttherulesofthemarket.Asaresultofpiracy,companiesinvestingininventionwillinevitablyrunbankruptcyandoursocietywillstopwhereitis.,.,习作评析CanMoneyBuyHappiness有人认为金钱是幸福之本（sourceofhappiness）也有人认为金钱是万恶之源（rootofallevil）我的看法（myopinion）,.,Somesaythatsocietytodayisbasedonmoney.Thereisno(主题句)questionthatmoneyisimportantinourlives.Peopleview（主题句）（转折句）moneydifferently.Somepeopleconsidermoneyasourceof(主题句)happiness.Tothem,moneyiseverything.Theydreamof（主要支持句）（次要支持句）luxuryhomes,clothes,jewelry,etc.Inotherwords,they（次要支持句）dreamofaluxuriouslifestyle.Theycannotimaginelife（次要支持句）withoutmoneyandmaterialthings.,.,Thereasonsofthisphenomenonareveryevident.Firstly,thelowerpriceofpiratedproductsattractmostpeople.Manyofusprefertobuypiratedbooksinlowerpricethanbuyalegaleditioninveryhighprice.Secondly,piratedproductsdonotnecessarilymeanpoorquality.Thirdly,inourcountry,peopleslawawarenessisverypoor.Mostofusdonotrealizetheharmofpiratedproducts.,.,Themainreasonthepiratedproductssopopularisthatpeopledidntawareitsharmfultothecompanyofright.Peoplealsothink,“thepiratedproductsassamequalityaslegalproductsandpiratedproductsarecheaperthanlegalproducts.Whyweshouldbuytheleagalproducts?”Somoreandmorepeoplebuythepiratedproducts.,.,Themainreasonwhypiratedproductsaresopopularisthatpeopleslawawarenessisverypoor.Theydontrealizeitsharmfultothecompanieswhichproducelegalproducts.Peoplealsothinkthequalityofpiratedproductsisasgoodaslegalones.Besides,piratedproductsarecheaperthanlegalones.Whyshouldwebuythelegalproducts?Somoreandmorepeoplebuythepiratedproducts.,.,三大段落要素,1.段落的单一性或一致性（unity)。Unityofaparagraphisconcernedwithitscontent.Ifallthesentencesintheparagraphleadtoonecentraltheme,theparagraphisunified.即一个段落只能表达一个中心意思或中心思想，而这个中心最好限于一至二个句子的表述，其余表示事实、范例、原因、论证等的扩展句必须为这个中心服务。例如，,.,Nobodycouldhavefailedtonoticethefactthatreadingclassicsplaysanimportantandbeneficialroleinthepersonaldevelopmentandgrowthofpeople.Personally,eversincemychildhood,nothinghasbeenmoreattractivethanreadingtheclassicmasterpieces.Takingalookaround,wecanfindclassicsfromwhichpeoplehugelybenefittoonumeroustolist:TheDreamintheRedChamber,TheLegendofThreeKingdoms,Bibleandthelike.(2006.12cet-6)1.阅读经典书籍对人的成长至关重要）,.,2.段落的连贯性。(Coherenceofaparagraphisconcernedwithitsform,oritsorganization.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder,andthetransitionshouldbesmoothandnaturally.)段落的连贯性指的是段落所表达的中心合乎逻辑地发展。段落中的各个句子不是简单地、杂乱无章地堆在一起，而是按照一定逻辑关系，结合一定的语言形式有机地组合在一起，从而自然、流畅地展开中心。,.,例如，Exerciseisgoodforustobuildourbodies.Ithelpsco-ordinatethedifferentpartsofourbodieswhenwehavesports.Forexample,wemusttryourbesttoco-ordinatethemovementsofthearmsandlegswhenweplaybasketball,orwewontbeabletoshootthebasket.Exercisealsobenefitsourorgans.Itletstheheartbeatfasterthanusual,andthenhelpsenlargethebloodvesselstoprotectusfromheartattacks.,.,Listedbelowareacontrollingideaandninesentencesthatdevelopthecontrollingidea.renumberthesentencestoarrangetheminwhatyouthinkisthebestorder;thencomposeaparagraph,usingthecontrollingideaasyourfirstsentence.Thecontrollingidea:SinceIbeganlivinginanapartmentandgoingtoschool,mybiggestproblemhasbeenthehousework.,.,Cookingmyfoodisabiggerproblem.Theworstproblemisdoingmylaundry.Cleaningtheapartmentisnottoobad;althoughittakestimeawayfrommystudies;atleastwhenIfinishtheapartmentlooksnice.Sometimesthefoodisburned,sometimesitisnotcookedenough,andsometimesIhavenotmeasuredcorrectly,sothefoodtastesterrible.ShoppingformyfoodismoredifficultbecauseIdontknowtheEnglishnamesofmanyfoods,andoftenIhavetospendextratimeaskingforhelp.Thelaundromatisfarfrommyapartment,andIwastemuchvaluabletime.Ihaveneverhadtocookbefore,andusuallytheresultsarediscouraging.MostlyIamembarrassedasIsitinthelaundromatwithallthewomen,andsoIwaituntilallmyclothesaredirtybeforeIdothishorribletask.Ialsohavetroublewiththecomplicatedinstructions,sooccasionallyIendupwithpinksocksorashirtthatistoosmall.,.,3.段落的过渡词。Transition.如果说段落的连贯性强调的是语言内在的逻辑关系，那么，段落的过渡词则强调的是语言表达形式上的连贯，它服务于逻辑关系的表达。段落的过渡词指的是段落中句子与句子间过渡的接连纽带.方法有：A.Usingparallelstructures;B.RepeatingwordsorwordsgroupsC.Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences,.,D.Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs.E.Usingtransitionalexpressions,.,1)Transitionalphrasesforspatialdevelopment:,aboveacrossfromadjacenttoalsoupunder,beforemebelowbeyondfurtherdownaround,hereinthedistancenearbynexttoclosetonearto,ontheleftontherightoppositetoontopofbeneathover,.,2)Transitionalphrasesforchronologicaldevelopment:,first,second,hemeantimeatthesametimeafteranintervalpresentlysomewhatlater,soonthennextnowlaterfinally,eventuallythereuponthereafterafterafterwardatlast,.,3)Transitionalphrasesforanalyticaldevelopment:,first,second,etc.butfinallyalsoanotheryetoncesuchthenthus,nowasaresultatlastconsequentlyforexampleforinstanceinadditioninthiscaseotherwiseinclosing,forthispurposefurthermoremoreoverlikewisenextonthecontraryinsummaryontheotherhandinconclusiontherefore,.,4)Transitionalphrasesforcomparisons:,anotherequallyimportantbesidesinfactsimilarly,furthermoretoo,alsotheninadditiontojustasso,moreoveratthesametimeaccordinglylike,likewiseinthesameway,.,5)Transitionalphrasesforcontrasts:,onthecontraryontheotherhanddespiteyet,butunlikenotonlybutalsoyearsagotodaytheformerthelatterthefirstwhereasthesecondontheonehandontheother,differentfromincontrasttoinspiteofwhereasneverthelessheretherethisthatthennowsomeothersoncenow,.,6)Transitionalphrasesforsummary:,inawordinbriefinconclusioninsummaryinshort,onthewholefinallyatlasttosumuptoconclude,.,7)Transitionalphrasesforresult:,thussoconsequentlyhencetherefore,accordinglyasaresultasaconsequenceonthataccountinturnsout,.,8)Transitionalphrasesforemphasis:,chieflyespeciallyindeedinfactcertainlyparticularlyactuallyaboveall,.,9)Transitionalphrasesforconcession:,stillyetclearlyafterallthough,althoughneverthelesseventhoughinspiteof,.,写作练习一：选择适当的过渡性词语填空,1.whatexplainsthegrowingtrendtowarddelayedchildbearing?_,thehighdivorcerateismakingnewlywedsthinktwiceaboutstartingafamilyrightaway._,manyyoungcoupleswanttobemorefinanciallysecurebeforehavingchildren._,moremarriedwomenprefertodevotetimetotheircareersbeforehavingababy.,Inthefirstplace,Inaddition,Finally,.,2.Thereisagrowingtrendtowarddelayedchildbearingamongyoungcouples,_amarried,childlesswomanisstillregardedas“horrible”.,Despitethefactthat,.,3.Anotherreasonisthecurrentpreoccupationwithself-fulfillmentamongyoungcouples._,oneofmyfriends,whohasnochildren,_shehasbeenmarriedforeightyears.,Forexample,eventhough,.,4.Theuncertaintyofhowchildrenwillturnoutisanotherfactorintheirdecision.“Iwontbreakmybackforakidwhomayturnouttobeacriminal”,asamarriedwomanputit._,theyareunwillingtosacrificetheirlimitedtime,moneyandenergy.,Asaresult,.,5.Inthepastpeoplethoughtthatitwasgoodtohaveabigfamilyandthatwhenchildrengotoldenoughtowork,theycouldbringinmoneyandtakecareoftheirparents._,youngpeoplenowregardchildrenasaliability,bothfinancialandemotional.,Onthecontrary,.,6.IntheUnitedStates,childbearinghaslostitsappealformanyAmericanwomen._,moreandmoreChinesewomenputoffhavingachild.,Likewise,.,7.Thebirthrateinmanybigcitiesbeginstodecline,_thegrowingtrendtowarddelayedchildbearing.,onaccountof,.,8.Obviously,youngpeoplearereluctanttohavechildrensimplybecausetheyfeartheycannotaffordtimeandenergyforraisingachild._,inthedeeppartoftheirhearts,theydesiretohaveachild.,However,.,9._,thistrendrepresentsasharpbreakwiththisnationstraditionalpreoccupationwiththeneedsofchildren.,Insummary,.,写作练习二：删除与主题句无关的句子并使句子按照逻辑顺序排列，然后在把句子写成段落,TS：Therearethreekindsofbookowners.thosewhohavemanybooksbuthavereadthroughafew,dippedintomostandmarkednonethosewhohaveafewbooksormanyandhavereadandmarkedthemallthosewhohaveallthestandardsetsandbest-sellersbuthavereadnonethosewhohavewrittenmanybooks,.,Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirsthasallthestandardsetsandbest-sellersunreadanduntouched.Thesecondhasagreatmanybooksafewofthemreadthrough,mostofthemdippedinto,butallofthemascleanandshinyasthedaytheywerebought.Thethirdhasafewormanyeveryoneofthemdog-eareddilapidated,shakenandloosenedbycontinualuse,markedandscribbledinfromfronttoback.,.,TS:StudentsstudyEnglishfordifferentreasons.readarticlesandtextbooksabouttheirsubjectinEnglish.getabetterjobaftergraduationattractedbytheculturedifficulttoacquire,.,StudentsstudyEnglishfordifferentreasons.Tobeginwith,theymayneedEnglishtoreadarticlesandtextbooksabouttheirsubjectinEnglish.Furthermore,theyareattractedbytheforeignculture.Asaresult,theyarestudyinghardtoknowmoreabouttheEnglishspeakingpeopleandcountries.Finally,agoodknowledgeofEnglishmayhelpthemgetabetterjobaftergraduation.,.,段落的展开方法,1举例法(Exemplification)运用事实举例来说明一种观点、概念、情况等是最常用、最有效、最自然的扩展段落的一种方法。首先,所选的例子一定要为写作目的服务,并且是读者熟悉的例子。其次,所选的例子应该尽量具体。一般遇到类似，现象、现状等关键词要用此法。如,(练习一下）1.目前盗版的现象比较严重(2005.6)1.有些大学校园浪费现象日益严重(2004.1）当前社会上存在许多不诚实的现象(2003.1)1.随着信息技术的发展，电子图书越来越多(2008.6),.,WillE-booksReplaceTraditionalBooks?,1.随着信息技术的发展，电子图书越来越多2.有人认为电子图书会取代传统图书，理由是3.我的看法,.,ThenumberofE-booksisconstantlyontheriseasaresultoftherapiddevelopmentofinformationtechnology.Wecandownloadthelatestbest-sellerfromtheinternet.Nowonderpeoplesaye-bookswilltaketheplaceoftraditionalbooks.,.,2.列举法(Listing)拓展句之间可以是并列的关系。他们的顺序及位置的改变不会影响整个段落的意义。这种情况下经常用列举法。如，涉及原因、方法、影响、观点、解决方法等。Cet-4,6中用得非常普遍。例如，1.阅读经典书籍对人的成长至关重要2.现在愿意阅读经典的人却越来越少，原因是3.我们大学生应该怎么做（2006.12cet-6）,.,Inviewoftheseriousnessofthisproblem,effectivemeasuresmustbetakenbeforethingsgetworse.First,itisessentialthatcollegerulesandregulationsbeworkedoutandenforcedtoencouragecollegestudentstoreadclassicalworksandstartclassics-readingcampaignsincampus.Secondly,collegestudentsshouldenhancetheirawarenessoftheimportanceofabsorbingtheessenceoftheclassicsinwhichourancestorslefttheirwisdomsandexperiences.Withproperrulesandanalertpublic,itwillonlybeamatteroftimetoseethisproblembecomeathingofthepastinthenearfuture.,.,3.分类法(Classification)按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落.先由主题句提出分类，再由扩展句一一加以陈述和说明。Examinationsareofthreekinds.Oneisthemachine-scored“objective”type.Inanobjectivetest,thestudentsanswerquestionsbydecidingonthebestchoiceamonganumberofalternativesgive.Anotheristhe“completion”type.Thiskindofexaminationrequiresthestudentstoaddawordorphrasetoasentence.Andthethirdtypeisessayexamination,inwhichthestudentsareaskedtowriteacompositiononagiventopic.Allthesekindsofexaminationsaredesignedtorevealwhatastudentmayhavelearnedinanyparticularcourse.,.,4.对照比较法(ContrastandComparison)当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同，（similarities）或相异（differences）之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。“比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处：“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。比较和对比一般采用两种方法来组织：1）对两项或多项事的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，B1，A2，B2；A3，B3。2）对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，A2，A3;B1,B2,B3;。例如,.,Despitetheirobviousdifferencesinlength,theparagraphandtheessayarequitesim