环境工程-英文

Environmentalengineering,ROMA,Environmentalengineering,Environmentalengineeringistheapplicationofscienceandengineeringprinciplestoprotectandutilisenaturalresources,controlenvironmentalpollution,improveenvironmentalqualitytoenablehealthyecosystemsandcomfortablehabitationofhumans.Itisbasedonmultipledisciplinesincludinggeology,hydrology,biology,chemistry,physics,medicine,engineering,management,economics,law,etc.Environmentalengineeringinvolveswatersupply,pollutioncontrol,recycling,waste(solidandliquid)disposal,radiationprotection,industrialhygiene,environmentalsustainability,andpublichealth.环境工程是应用的科学和工程的原则，以保护和利用自然资源，控制环境污染，改善环境质量，使健康的生态系统和人类的舒适的住处。它基于多个学科，包括地质、水文、生物、化学、物理、医药、工程、管理、经济学、法律等。环境工程涉及供水、污染控制、回收、废物(固体和液体)、辐射防护、工业卫生、环境可持续性和公共卫生。,Types:,Itisdividedintotwotypes:1.Naturalenvironmentand2.Builtenvironment.Thenaturalenvironmentencompassesalllivingandnon-livingthingsoccurringnaturallyinthearea.Thebuiltenvironmentreferstothehuman-madesurroundingsthatprovidethesettingforhumanactivity(e.g.,buildings,parks,citiesandsupportinginfrastructuresuchastransport,watersupplyandenergysupply).它分为两种类型:自然生态环境和建筑的环境。自然的环境包括所有生物和非生物的东西，自然发生在该地区。建筑的环境是指人类取得周围的环境，提供人类活动(如建筑、公园、城市和交通、供水和能源供应等配套设施)的设置。,Naturalenvironment,Builtenvironment,Ethics:伦理,Today,however,theengineerisnolongerfreefromconcernforethicalquestions.Scientistsandengineerslookattheworldobjectivelywithtechnicaltools,butoftenfacequestionsthatdemandresponsesforwhichtechnicaltoolsmaybeinsufficient.Insomecasesallthealternativestoaparticularengineeringsolutioninclude“unethical”elements.Engineersengagedinpollutioncontrol,orinanyactivitythatimpingesonthenaturalenvironment,interfacewithenvironmentalethics.Anenvironmentalethicconcernsitselfwiththeattitudeofpeopletowardotherlivingthingsandtowardthenaturalenvironment,aswellaswiththeirattitudestowardeachother.,然而，今天的工程师不再是不受关注的伦理问题。科学家和工程师看待世界与客观的技术工具，但往往面临需求的响应其技术工具可能不足的问题。在某些情况下，所有的选择一个特定的工程解决方案包括“不道德”的元素。工程师从事污染控制，或以任何的活动，撞击在自然的环境中，环境伦理接口。环境伦理学本身涉及的人对其他生物和对自然环境，以及与他们对彼此的态度的态度。,Biodiversity:生物多样性,Biodiversityisthedegreeofvariationoflifeformsatalllevelsofbiologicalsystems(i.e.,molecular,organismic,population,speciesandecosystem)andisusedtomeasurethehealthofecosystems.Biodiversityistheresultof3.5billionyearsofevolution.Thefossilrecordsuggeststhatthelastfewmillionyearsfeaturethegreatestbiodiversityinhistorybasedonfossilrecordanalysis.SincelifebeganontheEarth,fivemajormassextinctionsandseveralminoreventshaveledtolargeandsuddendropsinbiodiversity.ItisfoundthatbiodiversityappearstoincreasecontinuallyintherecentEarthhistory.生物多样性是生命形式变异各级生物系统（即，分子，机体，人口，物种和生态系统）的程度和用于测量生态系统的健康。生物多样性是3.5十亿年进化的结果。化石记录表明，在过去几百万年功能基于化石记录分析了历史上最大的生物多样性。既然生命开始在地球上，五大生物大灭绝和一些小的事件，已导致大量突然下降的生物多样性。研究发现，生物多样性似乎在最近的地球历史上不断地增加。,Fossil:化石,Theremainsorimpressionofaprehistoricplantoranimalembeddedinrockandpreservedinpetrifiedform.遗体或史前植物或动物的印象嵌在岩石和石化的形式保存下来,Benefits:,Humansocietybenefitsfromhealthybiodiversitywhichsupportsecosystemservicesincludingairquality,climate(e.g.,CO2sequestration),waterpurification,pollination,andpreventionoferosion.Therearemanymeasuresthatcouldbeusedtoprotectandrestorerichbiodiversity,suchasremovalofexoticspecies,reintroductionofthelostspecies,biodiversitybanking,reductionofpesticideusage,wildlifecorridors,resourceallocation,etc.人类社会的利益从支持生态系统服务，包括空气质量，气候（如CO2封存），水净化，授粉和防止水土流失健康的生物多样性。有迹象表明，可用于保护和恢复生物多样性丰富了很多措施，如清除外来物种的，失去的物种放归，生物多样性银行，减少杀虫剂的使用，野生动物走廊，资源分配等,GreenEngineering:绿色工程,Forengineers,sustainableengineeringisthedesignofman-madesystemstoensurethecurrentusesofnaturalresourcesdonotleadtodiminishedqualityoflifeoffuturegenerations.Forengineers,designisthekeywordhere.Greenengineeringistodesign,discoverandimplementengineeringsolutionswithanawarenessofpotentialbenefitsandproblemsintermsofenvironment,economyandsociety(threepillarsofsustainability)throughoutthedesignlifetime.Thegoalistominimiseadverseimpacts(e.g.,wateruseinefficiency,depletionoffinitematerialsandenergyresources,urbancongestion,waterandairpollution,degradationofenvironment)whilesimultaneouslymaximisingbenefitstotheeconomy,societyandenvironment.,对于工程师，可持续发展工程是人造系统的设计，以确保自然资源的目前用途不会导致未来几代人的生活质量的下降。对于工程师，“设计”的关键词是在这里。绿色工程是设计，探索和实施的工程解决方案的潜在好处和问题的环境，经济和社会方面的整个设计寿命的认识（可持续发展的三大支柱）。我们的目标是尽量减少不利影响（例如，水的使用效率低下，有限的物质资源和能源，城市拥堵，水和空气污染，环境恶化的耗竭），同时最大限度地提高对经济，社会和环境效益。,PollutionControl:污染控制,Pollutionistheintroductionofcontaminantsintothenaturalenvironmentwithadversechanges(airpollution,waterpollution,landpollution,etc).Pollutantscanbeeitherforeignsubstancesornaturallyoccurringcontaminants.Pollutioncontrolmeansthecontrolofemissionsandeffluentsintoair,waterorsoil.Withoutpollutioncontrol,thewasteproductsfromconsumption,heating,agriculture,mining,manufacturing,transportationandotherhumanactivities,whethertheyaccumulateordisperse,willdegradetheenvironment.Inthehierarchyofcontrols,pollutionpreventionandwasteminimisationaremoredesirablethanothermitigatingmeasures.Inthefieldoflanddevelopment,lowimpactdevelopmentisasimilartechniqueforthepreventionofurbanrunoff.Pollutioncontrolactivitiesincluderecycling,reusing,reducing,mitigating,preventing,compost,etc.,SustainableAgriculture:可持续的农业发展,Sustainableagricultureisanintegratedsystemofplantandanimalproductionpracticesthatwilllastoverthelongterm.Itisbasedonthestudyofrelationshipsbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironmentusingprinciplesofecology.Thebenefitsinsustainableagricultureincludemeetinghumanfoodandfibreneeds,enhancingenvironmentalqualityandthenaturalresourcebase,makingthemostefficientuseofnon-renewableresourcesandon-farmresources,integratingnaturalbiologicalcyclesandcontrols,sustainingtheeconomicviabilityoffarmoperations,andenhancingthequalityoflifeforfarmersandsocietyasawhole.可持续农业的植物和动物生产实践，将持续长期的综合系统。它是基于生物和生态的使用环境原则之间的关系的研究。在可持续农业的好处包括满足人类粮食和纤维的需求，提高环境质量和自然资源基础，从而最有效地利用资源的不可再生资源和农场，整合自然生物循环和控制，持续的经济可行性农场经营，提高生活质量为农民和整个社会,SustainableCity(eco-city):,Urbanisationcanbeplannedandtheengineeringcommunityshouldcollaboratewithotherprofessionstodesignmoreecofriendlyurbanenvironment,suchaseco-cities.Asustainablecity(oreco-city)isacitydesignedwithminimumenvironmentalimpact.Asustainablecityshouldbeabletofeeditselfwiththefoodproducedonthesurroundingcountryside,minimisetheimportedfoodfromfurtherafield,poweritselfwithrenewablesourcesofenergy,createthesmallestpossibleecologicalfootprint,producethelowestquantityofpollutionpossible,uselandefficiently,compostusedmaterials,recyclewasteorconvertwaste-to-energy.Incontrasttoruralorsuburbanareas,urbansystemscanbemoreenvironmentallysustainablebecausepeopleandresourcearelocatedsoclosetooneanothertosavetransportationenergyanduseresourcesmoreefficiently.,城市化的规划和工程团体应与其他行业合作，设计出更多的生态友好的城市环境，如生态城市。一个可持续发展的城市（或生态城），是一个城市的设计以最小的环境的影响。一个可持续发展的城市应该能够从更远的地方养活自己用产自周边乡村的食物，尽量减少进口食品，权力本身与可再生能源，创造尽可能小的生态足迹，产生污染可能的最低数量，用途土地有效，堆肥所用的材料，回收废物或将废物转化为能源。在对比农村或郊区，城市系统可以更环境可持续的，因为人们和资源的位置如此接近彼此以更有效地节省运输能源和资源使用。,ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERINGASAPROFESSION,Itisacareerthatmaybechallenging,enjoyable,personallysatisfying,andmonetarilyrewarding.Environmentalengineersarecommittedtohighstandardsofinterpersonalandenvironmentalethics.Theytrytobepartofthesolutionwhilerecognizingthatallpeopleincludingthemselvesarepartoftheproblem.它是一种职业，可能是具有挑战性的，愉快的，个人满意，和金钱奖励。环境工程师致力于高标准的人际交往和环境伦理的。他们试图成为解决方案的一部分，同时认识到所有的人，包括本身是问题的一部分。,Fluid:液体的:,Afluidisanythingthatflows,usuallyaliquidoragas.流体是什么，流动，通常是液体或的气体。,Afluidisusuallydefinedasamaterialinwhichmovementoccurscontinuouslyundertheapplicationofatangentialshearstress.流体通常被定义为在其中运动下的切线剪应力的应用连续发生的材料。,Ifaforce,isappliedtooneendoftheboard,thentheboardtransmitsatangentialshearstresst,F,tothereservoirsurface.Theboardandthewaterbeneathwillcontinuetomoveaslongast,andFarenonzero.如果力施加在板的一端，那么主板发送一个切向剪切应力T，F，到水库表面。董事会和水之下将继续下去，只要动为T，F和非零。,Flows,Irrotationalflows,laminarandturbulentflows,boundary-layerflows,漩流，层流和湍流，边界层流动，,Fluiddynamics,Inphysics,fluiddynamicsisasubdisciplineoffluidmechanicsthatdealswithfluidflowthenaturalscienceoffluids(liquidsandgases)inmotion.在物理学，流体力学是流体力学的一个分支学科，随着运动的流体（液体和气体）的流体流动，自然的科学处理。,Turbulence,Turbulenceisahighlydisorganizedstateofflowthatoccurswhenaflowbecomesunstable.Lookedatclosely,itconsistsofmanyvorticesofdifferingsizesandintensitiessuperimposedonthemainflowpattern.湍流流动，当流动变得不稳定出现高度混乱的状态。看着密切，它由不同大小和强度叠加在主流动图形的许多旋涡。,FluidEquation,Thecornerstoneofcomputationalfluiddynamicsisthefundamentalgoverningequationsoffluiddynamicsthecontinuity,momentumandenergyequations.计算流体动力学的基础是流体动力学-的连续性，动量和能量方程的基本控制方程。(1)massisconserved(m)(2)F=ma(Newtonssecondlaw);(3)energyisconserved(e).,Velocity(v),Thespeedofsomethinginagivendirection.的东西在给定方向的速度。,Ifasolidbodyisintranslationalmotion,thevelocityofeachpartofthebodyisthesame;ontheotherhand,ifafluidisinmotionthevelocitymaybedifferentateachlocationinthefluid.如果一个实体是在平移运动，身体的各部分的速度相同;另一方面，如果流体是在运动的速度可以在不同的在流体的每个位置,Resistance,Atransferofenergyfromthemainflowintothemanyvorticescreatesanenergylossinthemainflow.Theseenergylosses,whichoccuroverrelativelyshortdistances,areoftencalled“local”or“minor”losses.(Althoughtheymaynotbeminorinthesenseofbeingrelativelysmall.)Thefirsttypeofloss,whichoccurswithinrelativelylongcontrolvolumes,isoftenreferredtoeitherasa“resistance”or“friction”loss.,的转移能量从主流入前作许多旋涡会在主流程的能量损失。这些能量损失，这发生在相对短的距离，通常被称为“本地”和“未成年人”的损失。（尽管它们可能并不轻微的相对较小的意义。）的第一种类型的损失，这会发生相当长的控制体积内，通常是指既可以作为“电阻”或“摩擦”的损失。,StandardMetricUnit,Force=NewtonMass(weight)=kgAcceleration=m/s,1.Determinetheaccelerationsthatresultwhena12Nnetforceisappliedtoa3kgobjectandthentoa6kgobject.2.Anetforceof15Nisexertedonanobjecttocauseittoaccelerateatarateof5m/s2.Determinethemassoftheobject.,Sophia,whosemassis52kg,experiencedanetforceof1800Natthebottomofarollercoasterloopduringherschoolsphysicsfieldtriptothelocalamusementpark.DetermineSophiasaccelerationatthislocation.,BernoullisEquation,BernoullisPrincipleinAction,Asfluidmovesfromawiderpipetoanarrowerone,thevolumeofthefluidthatmovesagivendistanceinagiventimeperioddoesnotchange.Butsincethewidthofthenarrowerpipeissmaller,thefluidmustmovefaster(thatis,withgreaterdynamicpressure)inordertomovethesameamountoffluidthesamedistanceinthesameamountoftime.Observethebehaviorofariver:inawide,unconstrictedregion,itflowsslowly,butifitsflowisnarrowedbycanyonwalls,itspeedsupdramatically.当流体从更广泛的管移到一个较窄，在给定的时间内移动的给定的距离的流体的体积不会改变。但因为窄管的宽度较小，液必须更快(那就是，与更大的动态压力)，在相同的时间移动相同数量的流体相同的距离。观察的行为的一条河:宽、畅通无阻的地区，它缓缓流，但是如果由峡谷墙壁收窄其流，它加速了戏剧性。,PUMPS:泵,Apumpisadevicemadeformovingfluid,anditdoessobyutilizingapressuredifference,causingthefluidtomovefromanareaofhigherpressuretooneoflowerpressure.ItsoperationisbasedonaspectsbothofPascalsandBernoullisprinciples.泵是液体的流动，装置，它是通过利用一个压力差，导致流体从较高的压力区域移到一个较低的压力。其操作基于帕斯卡和伯努利原则的两个方面,CentrifugalPump:离心泵,Acentrifugalpumpisoneofthesimplestpiecesofequipment.Itspurposeistoconvertenergyofanelectricmotororengineintovelocityorkineticenergyandthenintopressureofafluidthatisbeingpumped.Theenergychangesoccurintotwomainpartsofthepump,theimpellerandthevolute.Theimpelleristherotatingpartthatconvertsdriverenergyintothekineticenergy.Thevoluteisthestationarypartthatconvertsthekineticenergyintopressure.,Gravity:重力,Gravityorgravitationisanaturalphenomenonbywhichallthingswithmassarebroughttowards(orgravitatetowards)oneanotherincludingstars,planets,galaxiesandevenlightandsub-atomicparticles.重力或引力是一种自然现象，与大众的所有东西走向带来(或倾向)另一个包括恒星、行星、星系和甚至光和亚原子粒子。,SETTLlNG,Whentheflocshavebeenformedtheymustbeseparatedfromthewater.Thisisinvariablydoneingravitysettlingtanksthatallowtheheavier-than-waterparticlestosettletothebottom.Settlingtanksaredesignedtoapproximateuniformflowandtominimizeturbulence.形成了絮凝体的时候他们必须要从水中分离。这往往是在允许比水重粒子，沉在底部的重力沉淀池。沉淀池设计近似均匀流，尽量减少湍流。,SettlingTankDesignandOperation,Gravitationalsettlingis,ashasbeennoted,oneofthemostefficientmeansofseparatingsolidsfromsurroundingliquid.Solidniquidseparationcanbeachievedthiswayaslongasthesolidsaremoredensethantheliquid.Simplesettlingis,however,affectedbyotherforcesincertaincircumstances.Particlessettleinoneofthreegeneralways:ClassI:Discreteparticlesettlingoccurswhenparticlessettleunhinderedbycontainerwallsorneighboringparticles.Class11:Flocculentsettlingoccurswhenneighboringparticlescomeintocontactwitheachother,changingparticlesizeandhinderingsettling.Class111:Thickeningoccurswhentheentiremassofparticlessettlewiththesamevelocity,andthereisnointerparticlemovement.,GRAVITYSETTLING:,Duringtheseparationprocess,thegasismovinginanupwarddirectionintothevapoursectionoftheseparatorandtheliquidparticlesaretendingtofalltothevesselbottomundertheinfluenceofgravity.在分离过程中，向上方向插入分隔符的蒸气节是气体和液体微粒倾向于落到容器底部下重力的影响。,Terminal/settlingvelocity,Terminal/settlingvelocityisthehighestvelocityattainablebyanobjectasitfallsthroughair.解决终端/速度是对象所能达到的最高速度，空中落下。,1.Anicehockeyplayerhasasuddenimpactforceof2000Nexertedonhimduetounexpectedcollisionwiththewall.Themassoftheplayeris100kg.Findhisacceleration.2.A50gtennisballmaybeacceleratedat1000ms2toreachaservicespeedof130mph.Calculatetheforcerequiredtoacceleratetheball.3.Supposethatasledisacceleratingatarateof2m/s2.Ifthenetforceistripledandthemassisdoubled,thenwhatisthenewaccelerationofthesled?,Settling-processbywhichparticulatessettletothebottomofaliquidandformasediment.沉降-过程，其中颗粒沉降至液体的底部，并形成沉淀物Sediment-anyparticulatematterthatcanbetransportedbyfluidflowandwhicheventuallyisdepositedasalayerofsolidparticlesonthebedorbottomofabodyofwaterorotherliquid.沉积物-任何颗粒物质，可以通过流体流动进行运输和最终被沉积为层上的水或其它液体中的主体的床或底部的固体颗粒。,Sedimentation-thedepositionbysettlingofasuspendedmaterial.-theseparationofadiluteslurryorsuspensionbygravitysettlingintoaclearfluidandaslurryofhighersolidscontent沉淀-沉积沉降悬浮物质。稀浆料或悬浮液通过重力沉降成透明液体和较高固体含量的浆料的分离,Centrifugalsedimentation,FACTORSAFFECTINGSEDIMENTATION,Severalfactorsaffecttheseparationofsettleablesolidsfromwater.Someofthemorecommontypesoffactorstoconsiderare:PARTICLESIZEWATERTEMPERATURE有几个因素会影响沉积的固体从水分离。一些需要考虑的因素比较常见的类型有：粒度水温,PARTICLESIZE,Thesizeandtypeofparticlestoberemovedhaveasignificanteffectontheoperationofthesedimentationtank.Becauseoftheirdensity,sandorsiltcanberemovedveryeasily.Thevelocityofthewater-flowchannelcanbeslowedtolessthanonefootpersecond,andmostofthegravelandgritwillberemovedbysimplegravitationalforces.Incontrast,colloidalmaterial,smallparticlesthatstayinsuspensionandmakethewaterseemcloudy,willnotsettleuntilthematerialiscoagulatedandflocculatedbytheadditionofachemical,suchasanironsaltoraluminumsulfate.Theshapeoftheparticlealsoaffectsitssettlingcharacteristics.Aroundparticle,forexample,willsettlemuchmorereadilythanaparticlethathasraggedorirregularedges.Allparticlestendtohaveaslightelectricalcharge.Particleswiththesamechargetendtorepeleachother.Thisrepellingactionkeepstheparticlesfromcongregatingintoflocsandsettling.,WATERTEMPERATURE,Anotherfactortoconsiderintheoperationofasedimentationbasinisthetemperatureofthewaterbeingtreated.Whenthetemperaturedecreases,therateofsettlingbecomesslower.在沉淀池的操作要考虑的另一个因素是水的温度而变化。当温度降低时，沉降的速率变慢。,Filtration,Filtrationiscommonlythemechanicalorphysicaloperationwhichisusedfortheseparationofsolidsfromfluids(liquidsorgases)byinterposingamediumthroughwhichonlythefluidcanpass.Thefluidthatpassesthroughiscalledthefiltrate.过滤通常是其中通过插入通过其中仅仅流体可以传递介质用于固体从流体（液体或气体）中分离的机械或物理操作。穿过流体称为滤液。,Applications,Filtrationisusedtoseparateparticlesandfluidinasuspension,wherethefluidcanbealiquid,agasorasupercriticalfluid.Dependingontheapplication,eitheroneorbothofthecomponentsmaybeisolated.Filtration,asaphysicaloperationisveryimportantinchemistryfortheseparationofmaterialsofdifferentchemicalcomposition.过滤用来分离颗粒和流体中的悬浮液，其中所述流体可以是液体，气体或超临界流体。根据不同的应用，任一个部件的一个或两个可以被分离。过滤，作为物理操作是在化学非常重要的不同化学组成的材料的分离。,Filterpress,Afilterpressisatoolusedinseparationprocesses,specificallyinsolid/liquidseparationusingtheprincipleofpressuredrive,providedbyaslurrypump.,Slurry,Asemi-liquidmixture,typicallyoffineparticlesofmanure,cement,orcoalandwater.一种半液体混合物，典型的粪便，水泥，或煤和水的细颗粒组成。,Rotaryvacuumfilterdrum,Rotaryvacuumfilterdrumconsistsofadrumrotatinginatubofliquidtobefiltered.Thetechniqueiswellsuitedtoslurries,andliquidswithahighsolidcontent,whichcouldclogotherformsoffilter.旋转真空过滤用滚筒由待过滤的滚筒旋转的液体的桶。该技术很适合于淤浆，和液体具有高固体含量，这可能会阻塞其他形式的过滤器。,Beltfilter,Thebeltfilter(sometimescalledabeltpressfilter,orbeltfilterpress)isanindustrialmachine,usedforsolid/liquidseparationprocesses,particularlythedewateringofsludgesinthechemicalindustry,miningandwatertreatment.Beltfilterpressesarealsousedintheproductionofapplejuice,ciderandwinemaking.带状过滤器（有时称为带式压滤机，或带式压滤机）是一种工业机器中，用于固/液分离方法，在化学工业，采矿和水处理污泥特别的脱水。带式压滤机也用于生产苹果汁，苹果汁和酿酒。,Thephenomenonoffluidization,Fluidizationisaprocesswherebyagranularmaterialisconvertedfromastaticsolid-likestatetoadynamicfluid-likestate.Theprocessoccurswhenafluid(liquidorgas)ispassedupthroughthegranularmaterial(powder).流化是一种方法，其中的粒状材料从一静止类似固体状态转换为动态类似流体状态。当一个流体（液体或气体）向上传递穿过颗粒材料（粉末）发生的方法。,Granularmaterial,Agranularmaterialisaconglomerationofdiscretesolid,macroscopicparticles.颗粒材料是离散的固体，宏观颗粒的聚集,Application,Fluidizedbedsareappliedinindustryduetotheirlargecontactareabetweenphases,whichenhanceschemicalreactions,heattransferandmasstransfer.Theefficiencyoffluidizedbedsishighlydependentofflowbehaviour.流化床被应用于工业由于两相之间的接触面积大，从而提高化学反应，热传递和质量传递。的流化床的效率高度依赖的流动行为。,Heat,Inphysics,heatisenergyinatransferbetweenasystemanditssurroundings,otherthanasworkorwiththetransferofmatter.在物理学中，热量是能量的系统和它的周围，比如工作或与物质的转移等之间的传送。,Heattransfer,Heattransferistheexchangeofthermalenergybetweenphysicalsystems,dependingonthetemperatureandpressure.传热是物理系统之间的热能量的交换，这取决于温度和压力.,ThefundamentalmodesofheattransferareConductionconvectionandRadiation传热的基本模式是传导对流放射线,Conduction,Conductionisthemodeofheattransferoccursfromonepartofasubstancetoanotherpartofwithinthesubstanceitselforwithanothersubstancewhichisplacedinphysicalcontact.Inconduction,thereisnonoticeablemovementofmolecules.传导热传递的模式下发生从一种物质的一个部分到的物质本身内的另一部分或与另一种物质，它被放置在物理接触。在导通，有分子没有明显的移动。,FourierLawofConduction:,Q=-kAdT/dxWhere:QistheheatflowratebyconductionKisthethermalconductivityofthematerialAisthecrosssectionalareanormaltodirectionofheatflowanddT/dxisthetemperaturegradientofthesection.,Convection,Conductiveheattransferoccurswithinafluiditselfanditiscarriedoutbytransferofonefractionofthefluidtotheremainingportion.Henceunl