英语语言学 lecture six

Review the chapter of syntaxl these are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon. Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one? How about the relation between morpheme and sememe? What are included in bound morpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。改变顺序意思会发生变化。这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。句子按说话的不同目的可以分为陈述句declarative、疑问句interrogative、祈使句imperative和感叹句exclamatory等不同类型。句子里还可以包含句子。包含在一个句子里的句子称为小句。只包含一个小句的句子称为简单句simple；包含两个或两个以上小句的句子称为复合句。复合句按句中小句之间的不同关系分为并列复合句compound和主从复合句complex。几种基本的组合关系 （离心结构exocentric construction，向心结构endocentric construction）在句子和短语中词与词之间的基本组合关系有以下几种：主谓关系，修饰关系，动宾关系，动补关系，并列关系在传统语法中区分了由词的语法形式表现出来的两种主从关系：一致关系concord agreement和支配关系。一致关系中，从属词的语法形式要随主导词的语法形式发生变化。一致关系主要表现在主语和谓语之间、修饰语和被修饰语之间。句子分析的方法句法分析是对句子和短语的结构进行的分析。语法学中句法分析的方法主要有两种，一种是句子成分分析发，另一种是直接成分分析法。句子成分分析法句子成分分析法是传统语法中通用的分析句子的方法。这种方法以词为分析的基本单位，根据句子和短语中词与词之间的关系，逐个确定句中的各种成分，然后在根据句中包含的成分确定句子的结构类型（即句型）。句子成分分析法从词开始“自下而上，从小到大”地对句子进行分析，因此英语里又称为“bottom-up”分析法。英语的句子成分通常分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语和状语。其中宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语；补语又可以分为主语补语和宾语补语。传统语法从句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。主要成分是任何一个句子都不可缺少的。分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出从属于它们的次要成分，这样一个句子的结构就一目了然了。英语的简单肯定助动陈述句分为七种主要句型SV Prices rose。SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.SVC Your face seems familiar.SVAdv My sister lives next door.SVOO We wish you happy birthday.SVOC The president declared the meeting open.SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.除基准句型外，还有与之对应的各种变换句型，包括：疑问句、祈使句、感叹句、否定句、 被动句、省略句、并列复合句、主从复合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。直接成分分析法 IC analysis另一种分析句子的方法是结构主义语言学（实际是其中的美国描写语言学派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。这种分析方法从句子出发，自上而下，从大到小，分析到语素为止，故英语里称为“top-down”分析法。成分和直接成分语言中的任何表示一定意义的单位，如果它不只包含一个语素，就是可以分解的，这样的单位叫做结构体。一个结构体内包含的较小的结构体和语素都是这个结构体的成分，而一个结构体一次可以直接分出的成分则是这个结构体的直接成分。The old man has come to his sons house.直接成分分析法的一个优点是它可以区别某些歧义现象。例如Chinese fur coat 的层次结构可能是 Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的层次结构与意义直接有关。汉语的“咬死了猎人的狗”也可以有两种不同的分析，咬死了/猎人的狗，或咬死猎人的/狗。What is the criterion used in IC analysis?The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ran without changing the structure, but poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.Conjoining & embeddingHypotactic & paratactic relationsLecture five Meaning (Semantics & pragmatics)Outlines:What is semantics?What is meaning?Kinds of meaning The traditional approach The functional approach The pragmatic approachSense relationships Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Polysemy and homonymy Sense relations between sentencesSemantic analysis Componential analysis Predication analysis Relational components Logical elements1. What is semantics?The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105语义可以分为词的意义word meaning 和句子意义sentence meaning. 本世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。Philosophy, psychology and linguistics all claim a deep interest in semantics. The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world to which they refer and evaluating the condition of truth and falsehood of such expressions. The psychologists claim a deep interest in understanding the human mind through language. -philosophers: relations bet. linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world-psychologists: human mind through language-Linguists: the change of word meaning, esp. the causes and rules of these changes in social and historical perspectives 2. What is meaning?II. Interpretations on Meaning1.Realist: All things called by the same name have some common property.唯实论：有同样名称的事物有共性 2.Nominalist: words are the symbols we use by convention to refer to things 唯名论（指称论）：约定俗成的名称而已3.Conceptualism / mentalism 概念论 / 心理论 This is presented by Saussures Sign Theory（1966） and Ogden and Richards Semantic triangle 符号理论和语义三角理论（1923）1) According Saussure, the linguistic sign consists of a Signifier and Signified 能指（施指）- 所指（受指） a sound image- a concept linked by a psychological bond2)According to Ogden and Richard, the symbol of a word signified things by virtue of (by means of, because of) the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language. And the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.That something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.Thought / Reference 相关(mediated) Concept/sense/Notion 概念 symbolizes refers to symbol/form indirect relationship referent word 词 - object 事物signifier stands for signifiedcode realitySense may be used in the same way as “connotation” is used in philosophy. It may refer to the properties an entity has. In this usage, “sense” is equivalent to “concept”.e.g. Woman conceptual: human, female, adultdesk-a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writesTo explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. (direct theory)The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. P107conceptual meaning/ sense (both by Leech)-it refers to the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. P106Every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content, but not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Therefore people suggest that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4Mechanism机械论 Bloomfield: Define the meaning of word by means of science and chemistrySince one can define the names of minerals in terms of chemistry and mineralogy, one can define the English word “salt” by way of the expression “sodium chloride” or the symbol “NaCl”. So the nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena. It is restricted to the scientific definition of everything to which language may contribute.5.Contextualism 语境论 The view is that one can derive (推测) meaning from the observable context or can reduce （还原bring）it to the original context. The situational context情景语境-speaker, hearer, action etc. The linguistic context言语语境-co-occurrence, collocation etc.6.Behaviourism行为论 Behaviourists define the meaning of a language form asthe situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield, 1933) Bloomfields stimulus-reaction model 刺激反应模式 Jill Jack S r s R Stimulus-verbal reaction-verbal stimulus-non-verbal reactionAppleverbal reactionsound wavesnon-verbal reaction of getting the apple7.Functionalism功能论They argue that meaning could only be interpreted from its use or function in social life.So meaning is variable and is realized at different levels of language.3. kinds of meaning1) the traditional approachFries(1952) presents a traditional distinction between “lexical” and “structural meaning”. The former is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with the grammar.The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests.In a word, the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meanings of the separate plus such structural meanings.德国语言学家和数学家Gottlob Frege 区分了词的指称意义reference 和词的系统意义sense. 指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系；系统意义是指附加意义，指语言成分本身（主要是指词）之间关系的意义，它涉及的是语言内部关系，一个词的系统意义通过与别的词的对照关系表现出来。例如，ram的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊，ewe 的指称意义在于它指世界上为雄性的羊。如果把ram 和ewe 放在一起对照比较就会看出它们的系统意义，它们分别指特定性别的羊。Fatherson, uncle/nephew这两对词的系统意义是表示家庭关系； wide/narrow, dead/live, buy/sell这几对词的系统意义在于它们表示了反义关系。2) the functional approachLeechs Classification of Meaning 利奇的语义分类1.Conceptual meaning 概念意义 （理性意义 / 外延意义 ）When the world changes, the conceptual meaning will also change.Old English: marshal-the person caring for horsesModern English: top officer or commanderMouse, hardware, monitor, etc. are typical of the change2.Connotative meaning 内涵意义 It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in peoples mind.Woman conceptual: human, female, adult connotative: gentle, compassionate, hard-working, fragile, sentimentalOx conceptual: a bull working on the farm connotative: hard-working, no complaints Connotative meaning differs as a result of age, social position, personal experience, etc. For example, Home can be both warm, sweet, comfortable and cold, perplexing. Linguistics as a course is both interesting and boring.3.Social meaning / stylistic meaning 社会意义 / 文体意义A piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.eg. horse-steed(诗体) nag（俚语）4.Affective meaning 情感意义 Affective meaning is concerned with expression of feelings and attitudes of speakers or writers.Using conceptual meaning to express affective meaning Repetition of the words with the same meaning Using connotative meaning to express affective meaning.eg. He is a fox.(as cunning as a fox) Using intonation and tone to express the speakers feeling.eg. Thank you for your kindness.(It might be ironic.) Using exclamation words to express affective meaning.eg. Alas! Aha! My God etc.5. Reflected Meaning 反映/反射意义 What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. eg. be pregnant - in a family way 象一家人一样，不拘礼节地6.Collocative meaning 搭配意义 What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.The words may have the same conceptual meanings , but need different locations. eg. pretty, handsome漂亮的，英俊的（男人）健美的，温雅的（女人7.Thematic meaning 主位/主题意义 What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. eg. Mr Smith donated the prize. The prize was donated by Mr Smith.3) the pragmatic approachBoth Palmer(1976) and Lyons (1977) have suggested that we should draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the sentence meaning being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while utterance meaning includes all the various types of meaning that are not directly related to them.In a sense pragmatics studies how contextual features determine or influence the interpretation of utterances. For example, there will be several possible interpretations to the utterance “John is like a fish” in isolation. But if it is said when John is swimming, it probably means “John swims well”. If it is said at a party, it will be taken to mean John can drink a lot of wine”. On other occasion it can mean “John is as cold as fish”. In any case it is justified to say that contextual factors intervene in semantic interpretation.IV. Sense relationshipsWords are in different sense relations with each other. Some words have more similar sense than others. For example, the sense of desk is more closely related to that of table than to chair. And the sense of desk is included in the sense of furniture.Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. 1. Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers rely to a great extent on the existence of synonymy for their definitions.But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent. They all differ one way or another.语言学家Palmer 认为真正的或绝对的同义词是没有的，两个词的意思不可能绝对相同。同义词在某些方面，比如方言、文体风格、感情色彩、搭配限制等方面有所不同。1)They may differ in styles or registers. e.g. formal purchase gentleman pass away, be with God, depart, breath ones last informal buy man die casual/colloquial chap pop off, kick the bucket, be done for2)They may differ in connotations (in their emotive or evaluative meanings). Politician & statesman (derogatory & commendatory) Politician 带有轻蔑之意，含有只为个人利益或其所属政党利益不惜一切的意思 Statesman 只含有赞扬之意，指其人精明能干，善于处理国政。 Thrifty & stingy Thrifty: Practicing or marked by the practice of thrift; wisely economical.节俭的：勤俭操持的或以勤俭为特点的；精明而经济的 Stingy : the most general, implies absence of generosity and often an inclination toward meanness of spirit: 意义最广，指不慷慨并常表示性格吝啬的倾向：e.g. She practices economy without being stingy.她奉行一种的不吝啬的节俭方式。3)They may differ in dialects of the language. British English: autumn elevator tin sweets sofa biscuit railway baggage American English: fall lift can candy couch cracker railroad luggage4)They may differ also in collocation. a) Rancid & addled 腐败的、质变的 Rancid bacon/ butter/ fat Addled egg/ brains b) Deep water ( no profound water) Deep/ profound sympathyc)汽车:car, automobile, vehicles, motor collocation: motor hotel(motel) automobile insurance 汽车保险As a result of this, there is only a loose sense of synonymy, based on the fact that many words are close in meaning.English is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin.2. Antonymy The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning: words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.We must be careful not allow the term “antonymy” to distract us into thinking that words contrast only on a single dimension: in face they may contrast with other words on a number of dimensions at once.1) complementary antonymy 互补反义关系it may be regarded as a special case of incompatibility holding over two-term sets. It is characteristic of such pairs of lexical items that the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one implies the denial of the other. For example: dead: alive; female: male; absent: present; boy: girl, etc.There is no intermediate ground between the two.The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by very. They do not have comparative or superlative degrees either.2) gradable antonymy ( this is the commonest type of antonymy)It refers to the feature of those antonyms which are gradable, because there are often intermediate forms between the pairs. It shows that the denial of the one does not imply assertion of the other. For example, in the hot/cold pair, one can find intermediate terms such as hot/ warm/cool/cold.The adjectives in this type can be modified by very. They may have comparative and superlative degrees.许多分级反义词的两个词中，有一个是有标记的marked, 另一个是无标记的 unmarked( the term for the higher degree)， 在提问句中常用无标记的词。如How high is it?,我们一般不用How low is it?来提问。回答时也常用无标记的词，如Fifty-five feet high, 而不用fifty-five feet low. 3)converse antonymy 逆向反义关系(relational opposites关系对立) (this is special type of antonymy)A quite different kind of “oppositeness” is found with pairs of words which exhibit reversal of a relationship between items, and is called relational opposites. The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. One presupposes the other. For example, buy: sell; lend: borrow; parent: child;关系对立反义词在意义上时相对称的。两个关系反义词在语义上既对立又互相依存，一方的存在以另一方的存在为前提。3. hyponymy Hypon