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一、状语的分类修饰性状语Adjuncts评注性状语Disjuncts连接性状语Conjuncts二、状语的位置,C13状语分句(Adverbials),1.修饰性状语修饰性状语,按其词汇意义,可分为时间状语、地点状语、过程状语、因果状语等。这类状语既可由副词词组、介词词组和名词词组表示,也可由限定分句(即状语从句)、非限定分句和无动词分句表示。,.时间状语(TimeAdjuncts)()何时状语(when-adjuncts)表示事情发生或状态存在的时间Weregoingtothetheatretomorrow.()持续状语(duration-adjuncts)事情或状态的持续时间Theyhavelivedherefortwentyyears.()频度状语(frequency-adjuncts)事情或状态发生的频率Sheseesherdoctortwiceamonth.,引导时间状语的两个常见的从属关联:NosoonerthanHardly/scarcely/barelywhen一件事紧接着另一件事发生:一/刚就第一个分句常用过去完成体Hehadnosooneraskedthequestionthantheanswercametohim.如果把nosooner或hardly等放在句首时,要颠倒主语和操作词。Nosoonerhadheaskedthequestionthantheanswercametohim.,.地点状语(placeadjuncts)outsidethevillage.位置downthehill.方向Theyranalongway.距离fromtheschool.来源totheschoolbus.目标,.过程状语(Processadjuncts)()方式状语(manner)描述做事的方式或方法Theyplannedtheprojectcarefully.()工具状语(instrument)客观的外在工具ItisdifficulttowriteEnglishletterswithaChinesebrush.,()执行者状语(Agentive-adjuncts)动作的执行者Theflyingobjectwasseenbymanypeople.因果状语()原因状语,原因状语通常可由限定分句、非限定分句、无动词分句以及某些介词词组来表示,其中最重要的一种是表示原因的限定分句:1)限定原因状语分句原因限定分句通常由because,since,asfor等连词引导。例如用because引导:Hedidntgodowntown,becauseIadvisedhimnotto他没有到市区去,因为我劝他不要去。,用as引导:Wedidnttakeourraincoatsaswewerentexpectingittorain我们没带雨衣,因为没有料到会下雨。用since引导:SinceMr.Foxisill,hehastocanceltheappointment福克斯先生病了,不得不取消约会。用for引导:Mariawasthoroughlyembarrassed,forherparentstreatedherlikeachild玛丽亚局促不安,因为她父母把她当作小孩看待。,原因状语分句还可由inthat引导:Thismachinediffersfromtheotheroneinthatitismorepowerful这台机器与那台机器的不同之处在于功率较大。用nowthat引导:Nowthatthenewregulationshavecomeintoforce,therearefarfeweraccidentsontheroads由于实行了新规则,路上事故少多了。,用seeingthat引导:Wecantexpecthimtoknowthestoryseeingthathehasntreadit他既然没有看过,我们不能指望他了解故事内容。用inasmuchas引导:IamreadytoacceptyourproposalinasmuchasIbelieveittobethebestyoucanoffer我准备接受你的建议,因为我相信这是你所能提出的最好的建议。,2)非限定原因状语分句由动词不定式、-ing分词和-ed分词构成的非限定分句也可以表示原因。a)用不定式分句表示。例如:Theywereannoyedtoseetheshowerhadntbeeninstalled看到淋浴设备尚未装好,他们很生气。b)用-ing分词分句表示。例如:Beingill,hecouldnotattendhisfriendsfuneral他因病不能参加朋友的葬礼。,自身带有主语的-ing分词分句也可以表示原因。例如:Itbeingnowprettylate,wetookourcandlesandwentupstairs时间很晚了,我们拿了蜡烛上楼去。Therainhavingstarted,weabandonedourtents下雨了,我们放弃了帐篷。,c)用-ed分词分句表示。例如:WritteninsimpleEnglish,thebookissuitableforbeginners这本书是用浅近易懂的英语写的,适合初学者阅读。自身带有主语的-ed分词分句也可以表示原因。例如:Hisvoicedrownedoutbythenoise,theprofessorinterruptedhislecture教授中断了讲课,因为喧噪声淹没了他的话音,ing分词和-ed分词之后间或可以添加一个“as+主语+替代词do”那样的分句,以明确其时间含义或起强调作用。例如:Standingasitdoesonahighhill,thetemplecommandsafineview庙宇坐落在高山上,从那儿可以俯视美丽的景色。Ifeelittobearareoccasion,occurringasitdoesonlyonceinmanyyears我认为这种事情是罕见的,许多年才发生一次。Situatedasitwasatthefootofthemountain,thehousewasveryquiet这房子坐落在山脚下,非常安静。,3)无动词原因状语分句无动词分句表示原因通常置于句首。例如:Anxiousforaquickdecision,thechairmancalledforavote会议主席急于快速作出决定,要求投票表决。()结果状语结果状语可以用限定分句非或限定分句表示。,1)限定性结果状语从句a)用sothat引导,例如“so+形容词+that-分句”:IwassosleepythatIcouldhardlykeepmyeyesopen我太瞌睡了,眼睛也睁不开了。“so+限定词+名词+that-分句”:Thehousecostsomuchmoneythatwedidntbuyit那房子要价很高,我们没有买。“so+副词+that-分句”:Annawasshakingsobadlythatshehadgoneintoafitofvomiting安娜颤抖得厉害,一阵呕吐。,“so+分词+that-分句”:Thebookissowrittenthatitgivesaquitewrongideaofthefacts这本书的写法使人对事实产生误解。sothat结构中的that在口语中有时可以省略。例如:ForTed,thepainofseparationwassointense(that)hecouldhardlybreathe对特德来说,分离的痛苦剧烈难熬,几乎使他透不过气来。,有时也可以把so+形容词副词置于句首,主句的词序倒装。例如:SobitterwasthecoffeethatIcouldntdrinkit这咖啡太苦了,我不能饮用。b)用suchthat引导。例如“such+名词+that-分句”:ItwassuchadeliciousdessertthatIdecidedtoorderanotherportion这种甜食美味可口,我决定再叫一份。,ThisissuchbeautifulfurniturethatImthinkingofbuyingit这家具太漂亮了,我打算把它买下来。“such(用作代词)that-分句”:Hisdiligencewassuchthathemadegreatprogress他如此勤奋,以致大有进步。“suchthat-分句”结构中的that在非正式语体中有时可以省略。例如:Itwassuchanexpensivecamera(that)Idecidedtohaveitinsured这架照相机价格昂贵,我决定给以保险。,c)用sothat引导。常见于正式语体。例如:Theletterwaslost,sothatIhadtowriteanother信丢失了,我只得再写一封。Hehadoverslept,sothathewaslateforwork他睡过了头,结果上班迟到。sothat-分句中的that在非正式语体中往往省略。例如:Theroomwaspackedwithpeople,so(that)wecouldntgetin室内挤满了人,我们进不去。,d)用that引导。例如:Imustbegettingabsent-mindedthatIforgottobringmyticket我一定是心不在焉,票子也忘记带。e)用withtheresultthat引导。例如:Iwasinthebath,withtheresultthatIdidntheartheknockatthedoor我在洗澡,因此没有听见敲门声。,2)非限定结果状语分句非限定结果状语分句主要由不定式分句和-ing分词分句表示。a)用不定式分句表示,常见于enoughto,tooto,soasto,sufficientlyto,onlytoto,suchasto等形式。Youarenotoldenoughtosignacontract你年龄不够,不能签合同。,b)用-ing分词分句表示结果,有时可与so,thus,thereby等词连用。例如:Abombexplodedatthepost-officelastweek,killingsixpeople上星期邮局里爆炸了一颗炸弹,结果六人死亡。Helockedthedoor,thusmakingsurethatnoonewouldinterrupthim他把门锁上,这就确保没有人打扰他。,Hewrotemealetterofrecommendation,sokeepingapromisehehadmadealongtimeago他给我写了一封推荐信,履行了他很久以前所许的诺言。Hepickedupsupportfromseveralminoritygroups,therebyguaranteeingthathewouldwintheelection他得到了几个少数党的支持,从而保证他会在竞选中获胜。,()目的状语目的状语可由限定分句或非限定分句表示。1)限定分句目的状语分句通常由sothat,lest,incase,inorderthat等连词引导的限定分句表示。a)用sothat引导。例如:Yououghttomakeanoteofitsothatyouwontforget你应该把它记下来,以免忘记。,为了强调目的意义,有时可以把sothat分句置于句首。例如:Sothateveryonecouldhear,theyusedaloudhailer为了使人人都能听到,他们使用了扩音器。也可以在分裂句中把sothat分句作为强调中心。例如:Itissothathisstudentsmayunderstandwellthattheteacherspeaksclearly正是为了使学生很好地理解,教师才讲得清清楚楚。,在非正式语体中,sothat分句中的that可以省略。例如:Wellsitnearerthefrontso(that)wecanhearbetter我们靠前面坐,这样可以听得清楚些。b)用inorderthat引导。inorderthat和sothat用法相同,较常见于正式语体。例如:Theyworkedhardinorderthattheymightsucceed他们努力工作,争取成功。,inorderthat可以置于句首,也可以用于分裂句中。例如:Inorderthathewouldbewarm,hebuiltafire为了暖和身子,他生起了火。Itwasinorderthatahospitalmightbebuiltthattheydonatedtwomilliondollars他们捐助二百万元,是为了建造一座医院。,c)用incase引导。例如:Buyanotherticketincaseyourbrotherwantstocome再买一张票子,说不定你弟弟要来。incase分句可以置于句首。例如:Incasetheywantedtostudy,theytookbooks他们带着书本,以备学习。,d)用lest引导。lest引导的目的状语分句只用于正式语体,且带有否定含义,相当于sothatnotinorderthatnot,分句谓语动词通常用should不定式表示。例如:Wehadtobeverycarefullestthenewsshouldbecomeknownearly我们必须谨慎小心,免得消息过早地走漏出去。,2)非限定目的状语分句由动词不定式和ing分词构成的非限定分句也可以表示目的。a)用不定式分句表示目的。例如:Hamsometimeswalkedwithustoshowustheboatsandships哈姆有时和我们一起散步,把大大小小的船只指点给我们看。如果不定式分句的逻辑主语不是主句的主语便须用“fornounpronounto不定式”分句表示目的。例如:Istoodasideforhertoenter我站开让她进来。,表示目的的不定式分句之前还可用soas和inorder,即用soasto和inorderto表示:Isometimeswalktoworksoastokeepmyweightdown为了不让体重增加,我有时步行上班。b)用ing分词分句表示目的,已属少见,主要见于美国英语。例如:Iwasoutshopping我外出买东西。Imgettingtiredofhangingaroundhereansweringquestions我对闲呆在这里回答问题感到厌倦。,()条件状语表示条件的限定分句简称“条件状语分句”(AdverbialClauseofCondition),分为真实条件状语分句和非真实条件状语分句。真实条件状语分句指所讲的条件是事实或者在说话人看来是可能实现的事情;非真实条件状语分句指所讲的条件与事实相反或者在说话人看来不大可能实现的事情。,1)非真实条件状语分句(参见第六章Were型虚拟式-if非真实条件句)非真实条件可以是与现在事实相反,与过去事实相反或者在将来不大可能发生的事情。a)表示现在的非真实条件。if分句动词通常用一般过去时、过去进行体、过去时情态助动词不定式,或者were型虚拟式;与这种条件状语分句相搭配的主句动词通常用wouldshouldcouldmight不定式一般形式或不定式进行体。例如:,IfIdidnthaveabadcold,Iwouldgotothebeachtoday要不是重感冒,我今天会去海滩的。(事实是:我患了重感冒。)Ifitwererainingnow,Iwouldntgoout要是现在下雨,我就不会出去。(事实是:现在不下雨。),Ifyoucouldliftthatpianobyyourself,Iwouldbeverysurprised要是你能够独自搬起那架钢琴,我可要大为惊讶。(事实是:你肯定搬不动。)IfJohnwererich,hewouldbelivinginthelargesthouseintown约翰要是富有,就会住上城里最大的房子。(事实是:约翰不富有。),b)表示过去的非真实条件。if分句动词用过去完成体、过去完成进行体或could等情态助动词不定式完成体;与这种条件状语分句相搭配的主句动词通常用wouldshouldcouldmight不定式完成体或不定式完成进行体。例如:IfIhadntbeensicklastweek,Iwouldnthavegonetothedoctor如果上星期不生病,我就不会去看医生了。(事实是:上星期生了病。),Ifithadbeenrainingyesterday,Iwouldhavetakenmyumbrella要是昨天下雨,我会带伞的。(事实是:昨天没有下雨。)IfIhadcalledthemupatsixoclock,theymighthavebeensleeping如果我6点钟给他们打电话,他们也许在睡觉。(事实是:6点钟没有给他们打电话。),上述诸例讲的都是过去时间的非真实条件(从句)和过去时间的非真实结果(主句)。但有时,过去时间的非真实条件也会引起现在时间的非真实结果。例如:IfIhadstudiedEnglishwhenIwasyounger,Iwouldntbesittinginthisclassroomtoday我要是年轻时学过英语,今天也就不会坐在这个教室里了。(事实是:年轻时未学英语,现在正坐在教室里学。),Ifthepatienthadnthadtheoperation,shemightnotbealivetoday这病人要不是动了手术,今天就不可能还活着。(事实是:此人过去动了手术,现在还活着。)c)表示将来时间不大可能出现的条件。if分句动词用一般过去时,weretowasto不定式,主句动词用wouldshouldcouldmight不定式。例如:,CouldyoucometothepartyifwehelditonFriday?如果我们星期五举行宴会,你能来吗?(在说话人看来,星期五举行宴会的可能性不是很大。)Hewoulddoitifyouweretoorderhimto倘若你命令他做,他会做的。(在说话人看来,你是多半不会命令他做这做那的。),上述各种非真实条件状语分句还有其倒装形式。例如:Wereittorain(Ifitweretorain),shewouldtakeherumbrella要是下雨,她会带伞的。Hadsheworkedhard(Ifshehadworkedbard),shewouldhavepassed她要是努力学习,就及格了。,2)真实条件状语分句真实条件状语分句也分为表示现在的真实条件、表示将来的真实条件,以及表示过去的真实条件。a)表示现在的真实条件。if分句动词用一般现在时(不包括情态助动词),主句动词也用一般现在时。这种句型可以表示不受时间限制的必然会发生的情况。例如:,Oilfloatsifyoupouritonwater在水上倒油,油就浮在水上。b)表示将来的真实条件。if分句动词通常用一般现在时(而不能在if分句中用shallwill表示将来),主句动词用情态助动词willshallcanmaymustoughtto等不定式。这是最常见的一种真实条件句。例如:,IwontgetlostifItakethemap如果带了地图,我就不会迷路。如果if分句动词用willwould不定式,这时willwould主要表示情态意义。will在这种搭配中相当于bewillingto,bedeterminedtoetc表示“愿意”、“坚持”等意义;若用would则口气婉转一些。与这种if分句相搭配,主句动词通常用willshallwouldshould不定式。例如:,Ifyoullreturnthesampleenclosedinthisletter,weshallbegrateful如果你愿意退还随信附寄的样品的话,我们将表示感谢。Illringuphissecretary,ifyoudprefertomakealaterappointment如果你愿意把约会时间推迟,我就给他的秘书打个电话。,Ifyoudspeakoneatatime,Idbeabletohearwhatyouhavetosay请一个个地说,好让我听清你们讲些什么。Ifthebankmanagerwouldgrantmealoan,Iwouldbuythathouse如果银行经理肯给我贷款的话,我就买下那幢房子。,if分句动词用should不定式,主句动词用现在时情态助动词不定式或用祈使式。例如:Ifthemoneyshouldnotarrive,howwillwepaytherent?如果钱不到,我们怎么付房租呢?Ifsheshouldfail,shecantryagain如果失败她可以再试试。Ifyoushouldbelate,youmustapologizetoyourhost万一迟到,你必须向主人道歉。,也能采用倒装形式。例如:Shouldyousee(Ifyoushouldsee)Helenattheconference,tellherImhere如果你在会议上见到海伦,告诉她我在这儿。上述if分句中的should是一个语法标记,即不论什么人称一律用should,表示说话人带有不肯定的语气。这种用法的should如若略去不用,即用一般现在时表示,句子的基本含义不变。,再者,如果if分句动词用should不定式,主句动词用过去时情态助动词不定式,则不肯定的意味更强了,或者说语气更加婉转。例如:Ifheshouldcometomorrow,Iwouldtellhimeverything如果他明天来,我就把所有的事都告诉他。Ifyoushouldbepassingmyhouse,youmightreturnthebookyouborrowed如果路过我家,可否把你借的那本书顺便还给我。,If从句也可用省略形式,多数情况用于if后面跟的是形容词组或介词词组。Iwillsellmyhouseifnecessary.Ifindoubt,askatyourlocallibrary.c)表示过去的真实条件,if分句动词用一般过去时,主句动词也用一般过去时。例如:Ifthedogbarked,hegaveitsomethingtoeat每逢狗叫,他总是给它点吃的。,2.评注性状语评注性状语无论在句法还是在语义上,都没有修饰性状语和主句的联系密切。它们有时被称为“句子的修饰性状语”,或“句子的状语”。它们从外围依附于主句,而不象修饰性状语那样与主句合为一体。评注性状语按语义可分为“文体性评注状语(StyleDisjunct)和“内容性评注状语”(ContentDisjunct)。,文体评注性状语表示说话者对话语的态度,如seriously,frankly,literally,specifically,generally,broadly,honestly,confidentially,truly,truthfully,briefly,parenthetically(顺带说一下),relatively,personally,candidly,flatly,crudely,bluntly,simply,metaphorically,strictly,paradoxically等。例如:Seriously,Ivegivenupmyjob说真的,我已经辞去了我的工作。,Confidentially,sheisverystupid私下说说,她很愚蠢。“内容性评注状语”表示说话者对话语内容的评价。Obviously,shecouldntdealwiththeseproblems.(c.f.p323)区别两种评注性状语的形式标准是能否插入speaking一词:p323,3.连接性状语“连接性状语”,又叫“连接性附加语”(Conjunct),通常由连接性副词及其他语法结构表示。它在句子或分句之间起连接上下文的作用,而不起修饰作用。1)表示时间关系如meantime,meanwhile,inthemeantime,inthemeanwhile等,2)表示列举和顺序表示列举和顺序的连接性状语主要有:first,second,third;first(ly),secondly,thirdly;one,two,three(主要用于学术论文和科技文章);foronething(and)foranother(thing);forastart(用于非正式语体);tobeginwith,tostartwith;inthefirstplace,inthesecondplace;next,then;finally,eventually,last,lastly;toconclude(用于正式语体)。,3)表示意义增进和引申表示意义增进和引申的连接性状语主要有again,also,further-more,moreover,then(用于非正式语体,特别是口语体),inaddition,aboveall,whatismore等4)表示转折和对比主要有however,nevertheless,still,though,yet,inanycase,atanyrate,inspiteofthat,afterall,instead,then,onthecontrary,bywayofcontrast,conversely,bywayofcomparison,(ontheonehand)ontheotherhand等,5)等同和替换equally,likewise,similarly,inthesameway;namely,inotherwords,thatis,thatistosay;better,rather,alternatively,ontheotherhand6)过渡和总结主要有incidentally,now,bytheway等。7)结果和推论包括asaresult,accordingly,consequently,asaconsequence,inconsequence,forthis/thatreason,onthataccount,inthatcase,so,hence,therefore,then,thus等。,二、状语位置,状语是英语句子中很活跃并且也是很复杂的一个成分,任何起副词作用的单词、词组或分句都是状语,可以出现在句中的多个位置。英语句子的语序一般是:主语+谓语+宾语+修饰性状语,一般不在谓语动词和宾语之间插进状语。可以说:Imetyourparentsyesterday.或YesterdayImetyourparents.但不可以说:Imetyesterdayyourparents.,修饰性状语在句子的位置一般来说是在句末。Theycheckedtheirequipmentcarefully.Asecurityguardwasstandingatthecashpointmachine.TheBattleoftheBoynetookplacein1690.焦点副词(focusingadverb)都置于句中:焦点副词指出所讲内容中最有关联的事项,如做某事的主要理由或某事物具有的主要特质):even,merely,only,simply,just,really,particularly等。,Iwasparticularlyimpressedbyherdancingandsinging.BobonlywatchedEnglishpremiershiponSundays.修饰性状语置于句首或放在主语之前时,一般有强调作用。在叙事文体中,状语置于句首更能引起读者的注意。例如:AttenoclockyesterdayIwentdownformydinnerwithJack.Beforehismother,Tomisalwaysagoodboy.,程度副词做状语时,不置于句首。例如:Thankyouverymuch.*verymuchThankyou.修饰性状语可以置于主语和主要动词之间,单个副词置于主语和主要动词之间是很常见的。例如:Thecaptainkindlyinvitedusontothebridge.常置于主要动词之前的修饰性状语有:,A.绝大多数不定频度副词:always,usually,seldom,continuously,ever,repeatedly,sometimes,normally,never,often,constantly,frequently,regularly,rarely,continually等。Ioftengoswimmingandhuntinginthesummer.确定频度副词一般不这样使用,往往置于句末。例如:NewYorkTimesisdelivereddaily.,B.某些不定时间副词:again,first,since,finally,just,already,recently,last等。Ijustheardthenewsthathewaskilled.确定时间副词不放在句中,一般置于句首或句末。例如:ThedayaftertomorrowweareleavingforBeijing.*WearetomorrowleavingforBeijing.,C.某些程度副词,特别是起强调作用的程度副词:almost,altogether,absolutely,badly,completely,deeply,entirely,fairly等。D.前置修饰动词的焦点副词:even,merely,only,simply,just,really,particularly等。两个或两个以上不同性质的状语连续使用时的排序问题(参见第九章-多词形容词的排序问题)A.通常的排列顺序为:过程状语地点状语时间状语。例如:Theplanetookoffnoisily(manner)intothedarksky(place)justbeforedawn(time).,B.有方式副词又有down,out,home等方向副词时,方向副词先于方式副词。例如:Hewalkedhomequicklylastnight.Tomreacheddownslowly.C.不同类型的时间状语同现时,它们通常的语序是:持续状语+频度状语+何时状语Shewouldstaywithherparentsforacoupleofdaysonceamonthaftershegotmarried.,何时状语和频度状语两者可以互相移位,即频度状语在句中可以有两个位置:Sheeatslunchquicklyeverydayatnoon.Sheeatslunchquicklyatnooneveryday.D.原因状语和目的状语倾向于出现在其他状语之后:Sheeatslunchquicklyeverydaybecauseshelikestogobacktotheofficeandread.Sheeatslunchquicklyeverydayinordertohavesometimetoread.,E.当原因状语和目的状语同在一个句子出现时,目的状语往往位于原因状语之前。JanewenttoSanDiegoinordertovisitherunclebecauseshehadnotseemhimforalongtime.F.不同类型的地点状语同现时,一般语序是:距离+方向+来源+目标+位置(c.f.p309),G.两个或两个同类型状语在同一句当中出现时,意思最具体的往往放前,意思最笼统的放后,例如:Joshwasbornat2a.m.onNovember10thin1971.Helivesat120BigLandonRoad,Mt.Puritans,Pennsylvania,USA.H.修饰性状语在句子的位置一般来说是在句末,但这条规则并不是绝对的。,a.较短的状语往往处于较长的状语之前:Junearrivedatnoonwithusualflair.(时间状语在方式状语之前)b.状语是说话人所要传达的信息中心(常伴有特殊的停顿和语调):Welefttheparty,becauseitwasboring,wellbeforemidnight.(原因状语在时间状语之前),简答题,Discusstheheterogeneousnatureofadverbialsingrammaticalandsemantictermsascomparedwithothercategories.Adverbialsarefarmoreheterogeneousthananyothercategorybothingrammaticalandsemanticfeatures:1)Adverbialscantakeavarietyofformsondifferentgrammaticallevels:theycanbeadverbs,adjectivesornouns;theycanbeprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,adjectivephrasesornounphrases;ortheycanbeclauses,finiteornon-finite.2)Apartfromthediversityofforms,adverbialsalsodemonstrategreatflexibilityinthepositionstheycantakeinthesentence.Astotheirsemanticfunctions,adverbialscanbedividedintoadjunct,disjunctandconjunctadverbials.,Explainthedifferencesbetweenadjuncts,disjunctsandconjunctsinstructureandinfunction.Adjunctstypicallymodifytheverb;disjunctsconveyacommentonthecontentoftheclausetowhichtheyareperipherallyattached;conjuncts,ontheotherhand,arelogicaladhesives,functioningtoconnectanewsentencewiththecontext.,Whatisthehierarchicalorderofconsecutiveadjuncts?1)Timeadjunctsarenotconfinedtooneparticularpositioninthesentence.Whentimeadjunctsofdifferenttypesco-occur,theyusuallytakethisorder:duration-adjunct+frequencyadjunct+when-adjunct.Itisverycommonfortwoormorewhen-adjunctstoco-occur.Whentheyco-occur,theyformahierarchicalorderstartingfromspecifictogeneral.2)Itismorecommonforplaceadjunctstooccurinthefindpositionthananywhereelse.Whenplaceadjunctsofdifferenttypesco-occur;theyusuallyfollowthisorder:distance+direction+source+goal+position,placeadjunctsofthesametype,whentheyco-occur,formarelationofhierarchy.,Howmanytypesoftimeadjunctsdowehave?Wehavethreetypesoftimeadjuncts:when-adjuncts,duration-adjunctsandfrequency-adjuncts.Whendifferenttypesoftimeadjunctsco-occur,dotheyusuallytakearelativelyfixedorder?Yes,theyusuallytakearelativelyfixedorder:when+duration+frequencyadjuncts.,Provideexamplestoillustratesomedifferenttypesofplaceadjuncts.Dotheyfollowarelativelyfixedorderwhentheyco-occur?Placeadjunctscandenotealotofmeanings:position,direction,distance,source,goal,etc:Theyranoutsidethevillage./positiondownthehill./directionalongway./distancefromtheschool./sourcetotheschoolbus./goalYes,theyfollowarelativelyfixedorderwhentheyco-occur.Theyusuallyfollowthisorder:distance+direction+source+goal+position.Forexample,theyranalongwaydownthehillfromtheschooltothebus.,Whatisaprocessadjunct?Whatarethethreetypesofprocessadjunctsthatwehavedistinguished?Processadjuncts:theyaresotermedbecausetheydenotehowaneventtakesplaceoranactionisfulfilled,i.e.theyspecifytheprocessofaneventoraction.Processadjunctsmaybedistinguishedintothreetypes:manner-adjuncts,instrumentadjunctsandagentive-adjuncts.Whatisthegeneralrelationshipthatcontingencyadjunctsdenote?Howmanytypesofcontingencyadjunctshavewerecognized?Thegeneralrelationshipthatcontingencyadjunctsdenoteissomekindofcause-effectrelation.Wehaverecognizedfivetypesofcontingencyadjuncts:reason-adjuncts,result-adjuncts,purpose-adjuncts,concession-adjunctsandcondition-adjuncts.,Bothresult-adjunctsandpurpose-adjunctscanbeintroducedbysothat.Howcanwetellthedifference?Bothresult-adjunctsandpurpose-adjunctscanbeintroducedbysothat.However,inspiteofthisformalidentity,therearesomeimportantdifferencesthatmayhelptokeepthemapart:1)aresult-adjunctaftersothatisoften,thoughnotinvariably,separatedfromthemainclausebyacommawhileapurpose-adjunctisnot.2)Apurpose-adjunctaftersothattendstocontainamodalauxiliarywhilearesultadjunctusuallydoesnot.3)Apurpose-adjunctcanstandintheinitialpositionofasentencewhilearesult-adjunctnormallykeepsattheend.Whenwillisusedintheif-clause,whatdoesitusuallydenote?Willasafuturetimeexpressionusuall

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